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Astronauts on the International Space Station (ISS) are testing a new propulsion system … inside the station. While this might seem like the height of recklessness, this particular system doesn’t use rockets or propellants. Developed in the University of Maryland’s Space Power and Propulsion Laboratory, this new electromagnetic propulsion technology called the Resonant Inductive Near-field Generation System (RINGS) uses magnetic fields to move spacecraft as a way to increase service life and make satellite formation flying more practical.
Formation flying is a new field in spaceflight that allows for tackling large jobs without large satellites. By having satellites flying in a coordinated pattern, they can be turned into sensor arrays in the same way as astronomers use separate of telescopes to create one gigantic scope. It’s a technique with a large potential, but suffers from the fact that it requires a lot of propellant to keep the satellites in position. This makes the spacecraft heavier and shortens their working life. The use of rockets also risks the danger of other craft in the formation getting caught in the backwash, and the flash and heat can blind instruments.
Electromagnetic formation flight (EMFF) gets around this propellant problem by turning the satellites in a formation into electromagnets. By using a combination of magnets and reaction wheels, spacecraft in formation can move and change their attitude and even spin without propellant. Satellites can change their polarity to attract or repel one another, turn, or shift their relative positions in any manner that doesn’t require changing the center of gravity for the entire formation. Via RINGS propels satellites without propellants.
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MESSENGER's chief scientist reminisces before the spacecraft's planned impact into the planet's surface.
On 30 April, after more than four years in orbit around Mercury, NASA's MESSENGER probe will plunge to its doom. Out of fuel and long past its intended one-year mission, the spacecraft will crash into the planet's surface at a speed of 3.9 kilometres a second.
Mission head Sean Solomon, a planetary scientist and director of the Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory in Palisades, New York, sat down with Nature to talk about what MESSENGER has accomplished since it launched in 2004. The following interview has been edited and condensed.
Why did you want to send a mission to Mercury?
Mercury was the last frontier of our knowledge about the inner Solar System. We had multiple missions to Mars and the Moon, and only Mariner 10 had gone to Mercury. It flew by three times [twice in 1974 and once in 1975], and its images gave us our first ideas about Mercury’s geological history. But there was so much unanswered. It was a planet that was really missing a lot of key information.
What does it look like close up?
Probably the most disappointing aspect of Mercury turned out to be how nearly uniform its colour was. The effects of space-weathering must be so strong, and so rapidly acquired, that there were no convincing mineralogical signatures.
The hollows were a landform we didn't expect. They are bright depressions created by the loss of near-surface material. They are some of the youngest features on the planet, and speak to some sort of unstable material whose identity we are still working out.
What did you find at its poles?
We confirmed that there are areas of the polar deposits where water ice is stable for geologically long periods of time. The planet closest to the Sun harbours water ice at both poles.
There is dark material covering the polar deposits, which we have identified tentatively as organic-rich material of the sort that we see in the outer Solar System, in organic-rich meteorites and comets. I don’t think anybody could count Mercury as habitable. But it is a witness to the delivery of the ingredients for habitability, from the outer Solar System to the inner Solar System.
What about its weird magnetic field?
The magnetic field of Mercury is dipolar, but the dipole is not located at the centre of the planet like it is for Earth and most other planets. It's substantially offset, by about 20% of the planetary radius. There were no models that predicted that. I've managed to disturb some of my colleagues by asking them to think about whether Earth went through a history of its magnetic field that was characterized by a geometry like Mercury's.
Which MESSENGER findings surprised you?
The big surprise was the high abundances of volatile elements. All of the ideas for how Mercury got put together predicted that it would be depleted in volatiles, much like the Moon. But instead, we see sulphur [at] ten times the average for Earth. We see sodium and potassium. We see chlorine, one of the most volatile elements that we have the ability to measure.
That means we really didn't understand the particular way that Mercury became an iron-rich planet. It wasn't a process with sustained high temperatures that drove off the volatile elements. I don't think the final chapter has been written on what the most likely explanation is for the formation of Mercury.
In 2017, the European and Japanese space agencies plan to launch the BepiColombo mission to Mercury. What's left for it to discover?
They have a dual spacecraft with many more instruments than us. They will have a more-even view of the two hemispheres. The different viewing geometry, the slightly different mix of instruments and the fact that they have two spacecraft will give them opportunities.
What will MESSENGER’s impact day be like?
The last couple of hours will probably be pretty quiet. There will be a final orbit when the spacecraft passes behind the planet and we won't hear from it again. We think that we know where the impact will be, near the crater Shakespeare. [When it hits], it will become one of the youngest, albeit one of the tiniest, impact features on Mercury. And that will be the end of MESSENGER.
I have worked on the mission for 19 years. It's like losing a member of the family. Even pre-knowledge doesn't prepare you completely for the loss.
Related links in Nature Research
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About this article
Cite this article
Witze, A. Mercury mission set to end with dramatic crash. Nature (2015). https://doi.org/10.1038/nature.2015.17357
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Chapter 2 - Principles of Flight
This chapter discusses the fundamental physical laws governing the forces acting on an airplane in flight, and what effect these natural laws and forces have on the performance characteristics of airplanes. To competently control the airplane, the pilot must understand the principles involved and learn to utilize or counteract these natural forces.
Modern general aviation airplanes have what may be considered high performance characteristics. Therefore, it is increasingly necessary that pilots appreciate and understand the principles upon which the art of flying is based.
STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE
The atmosphere in which flight is conducted is an envelope of air that surrounds the earth and rests upon its surface. It is as much a part of the earth as the seas or the land. However, air differs from land and water inasmuch as it is a mixture of gases. It has mass, weight, and indefinite shape.
Air, like any other fluid, is able to flow and change its shape when subjected to even minute pressures because of the lack of strong molecular cohesion. For example, gas will completely fill any container into which it is placed, expanding or contracting to adjust its shape to the limits of the container.
The atmosphere is composed of 78 percent nitrogen, 21 percent oxygen, and 1 percent other gases, such as argon or helium. As some of these elements are heavier than others, there is a natural tendency of these heavier elements, such as oxygen, to settle to the surface of the earth, while the lighter elements are lifted up to the region of higher altitude. This explains why most of the oxygen is contained below 35,000 feet altitude.
Because air has mass and weight, it is a body, and as a body, it reacts to the scientific laws of bodies in the same manner as other gaseous bodies. This body of air resting upon the surface of the earth has weight and at sea level develops an average pressure of 14.7 pounds on each square inch of surface, or 29.92 inches of
Standard Sea Level Pressure
10 5 0
mercury—but as its thickness is limited, the higher the altitude, the less air there is above. For this reason, the weight of the atmosphere at 18,000 feet is only one-half what it is at sea level. [Figure 2-1]
Though there are various kinds of pressure, this discussion is mainly concerned with atmospheric pressure. It is one of the basic factors in weather changes, helps to lift the airplane, and actuates some of the important flight instruments in the airplane. These instruments are the altimeter, the airspeed indicator, the rate-of-climb indicator, and the manifold pressure gauge.
Though air is very light, it has mass and is affected by the attraction of gravity. Therefore, like any other substance, it has weight, and because of its weight, it has force. Since it is a fluid substance, this force is exerted equally in all directions, and its effect on bodies within the air is called pressure. Under standard conditions at sea level, the average pressure exerted on the human body by the weight of the atmosphere around it is approximately 14.7 lb./in. The density of air has significant effects on the airplane’s capability. As air becomes less dense, it reduces (1) power because the engine takes in less air, (2) thrust because the propeller is less efficient in thin air, and (3) lift because the thin air exerts less force on the airfoils.
EFFECTS OF PRESSURE ON DENSITY
Since air is a gas, it can be compressed or expanded. When air is compressed, a greater amount of air can occupy a given volume. Conversely, when pressure on a given volume of air is decreased, the air expands and occupies a greater space. That is, the original column of air at a lower pressure contains a smaller mass of air. In other words, the density is decreased. In fact, density is directly proportional to pressure. If the pressure is doubled, the density is doubled, and if the pressure is lowered, so is the density. This statement is true, only at a constant temperature.
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON DENSITY
The effect of increasing the temperature of a substance is to decrease its density. Conversely, decreasing the temperature has the effect of increasing the density. Thus, the density of air varies inversely as the absolute temperature varies. This statement is true, only at a constant pressure.
In the atmosphere, both temperature and pressure decrease with altitude, and have conflicting effects upon density. However, the fairly rapid drop in pressure as altitude is increased usually has the dominating effect. Hence, density can be expected to decrease with altitude.
EFFECT OF HUMIDITY ON DENSITY
The preceding paragraphs have assumed that the air was perfectly dry. In reality, it is never completely dry. The small amount of water vapor suspended in the atmosphere may be almost negligible under certain conditions, but in other conditions humidity may become an important factor in the performance of an airplane. Water vapor is lighter than air; consequently, moist air is lighter than dry air. It is lightest or least dense when, in a given set of conditions, it contains the maximum amount of water vapor. The higher the temperature, the greater amount of water vapor the air can hold. When comparing two separate air masses, the first warm and moist (both qualities tending to lighten the air) and the second cold and dry (both qualities making it heavier), the first necessarily must be less dense than the second. Pressure, temperature, and humidity have a great influence on airplane performance, because of their effect upon density.
NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION AND FORCE
In the 17th century, a philosopher and mathematician, Sir Isaac Newton, propounded three basic laws of motion. It is certain that he did not have the airplane in mind when he did so, but almost everything known about motion goes back to his three simple laws. These laws, named after Newton, are as follows:
Newton’s first law states, in part, that: A body at rest tends to remain at rest, and a body in motion tends to remain moving at the same speed and in the same direction.
This simply means that, in nature, nothing starts or stops moving until some outside force causes it to do so. An airplane at rest on the ramp will remain at rest unless a force strong enough to overcome its inertia is applied. Once it is moving, however, its inertia keeps it moving, subject to the various other forces acting on it. These forces may add to its motion, slow it down, or change its direction.
Newton’s second law implies that: When a body is acted upon by a constant force, its resulting acceleration is inversely proportional to the mass of the body and is directly proportional to the applied force.
What is being dealt with here are the factors involved in overcoming Newton’s First Law of Inertia. It covers both changes in direction and speed, including starting up from rest (positive acceleration) and coming to a stop (negative acceleration, or deceleration).
Newton’s third law states that: Whenever one body exerts a force on another, the second body always exerts on the first, a force that is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction.
The recoil of a gun as it is fired is a graphic example of Newton’s third law. The champion swimmer who pushes against the side of the pool during the turnaround, or the infant learning to walk—both would fail but for the phenomena expressed in this law. In an airplane, the propeller moves and pushes back the air; consequently, the air pushes the propeller (and thus the airplane) in the opposite direction—forward. In a jet airplane, the engine pushes a blast of hot gases backward; the force of equal and opposite reaction pushes against the engine and forces the airplane forward. The movement of all vehicles is a graphic illustration of Newton’s third law.
The explanation of lift can best be explained by looking at a cylinder rotating in an airstream. The local velocity near the cylinder is composed of the airstream velocity and the cylinder’s rotational velocity, which decreases with distance from the cylinder. On a cylinder, which is rotating in such a way that the top surface area is rotating in the same direction as the airflow, the local velocity at the surface is high on top and low on the bottom.
As shown in figure 2-2, at point “A,” a stagnation point exists where the airstream line that impinges on the surface splits; some air goes over and some under. Another stagnation point exists at “B,” where the two airstreams rejoin and resume at identical velocities. We now have upwash ahead of the rotating cylinder and downwash at the rear.
The difference in surface velocity accounts for a difference in pressure, with the pressure being lower on the top than the bottom. This low pressure area produces an upward force known as the “Magnus Effect.” This mechanically induced circulation illustrates the relationship between circulation and lift.
An airfoil with a positive angle of attack develops air circulation as its sharp trailing edge forces the rear stagnation point to be aft of the trailing edge, while the front stagnation point is below the leading edge. [Figure 2-3]
BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPLE OF PRESSURE
A half century after Sir Newton presented his laws, Mr. Daniel Bernoulli, a Swiss mathematician, explained how the pressure of a moving fluid (liquid or gas) varies with its speed of motion. Specifically, he stated that an increase in the speed of movement or flow would cause a decrease in the fluid’s pressure. This is exactly what happens to air passing over the curved top of the airplane wing.
An appropriate analogy can be made with water flowing through a garden hose. Water moving through a hose of constant diameter exerts a uniform pressure on the hose; but if the diameter of a section of the hose is increased or decreased, it is certain to change the pressure of the water at that point. Suppose the hose was pinched, thereby constricting the area through which the water flows. Assuming that the same volume of water flows through the constricted portion of the hose in the same period of time as before the hose was pinched, it follows that the speed of flow must increase at that point.
Therefore, if a portion of the hose is constricted, it not only increases the speed of the flow, but also decreases the pressure at that point. Like results could be achieved if streamlined solids (airfoils) were introduced at the same point in the hose. This same principle is the basis for the measurement of airspeed (fluid flow) and for analyzing the airfoil’s ability to produce lift.
A practical application of Bernoulli’s theorem is the venturi tube. The venturi tube has an air inlet which narrows to a throat (constricted point) and an outlet section which increases in diameter toward the rear. The diameter of the outlet is the same as that of the inlet. At the throat, the airflow speeds up and the pressure decreases; at the outlet, the airflow slows and the pressure increases. [Figure 2-4]
If air is recognized as a body and it is accepted that it terms the question of how an airplane wing can sustain flight when the airplane is heavier than air. Perhaps the explanation can best be reduced to its most elementary concept by stating that lift (flight) is simply the result of fluid flow (air) about an airfoil—or in everyday language, the result of moving an airfoil (wing), by whatever means, through the air.
Since it is the airfoil which harnesses the force developed by its movement through the air, a discussion and explanation of this structure, as well as some of the material presented in previous discussions on Newton’s and Bernoulli’s laws, will be presented.
An airfoil is a structure designed to obtain reaction upon its surface from the air through which it moves or that moves past such a structure. Air acts in various ways when submitted to different pressures and velocities; but this discussion will be confined to the parts of an airplane that a pilot is most concerned with in flight—namely, the airfoils designed to produce lift. By looking at a typical airfoil profile, such as the cross section of a wing, one can see several obvious characteristics of design. [Figure 2-5] Notice that there is a difference in the curvatures of the upper and lower surfaces of the airfoil (the curvature is called camber). The camber of the upper surface is more pronounced than that of the lower surface, which is somewhat flat in most instances.
In figure 2-5, note that the two extremities of the airfoil profile also differ in appearance. The end which faces forward in flight is called the leading edge, and is rounded; while the other end, the trailing edge, is quite narrow and tapered.
must follow the above laws, one can begin to see how and why an airplane wing develops lift as it
moves through the air.
In the sections devoted to Newton’s and Bernoulli’s
Figure 2-5.Typical airfoil section.
discoveries, it has already been discussed in general
Velocity Pressure Velocity Pressure Velocity Pressure
A reference line often used in discussing the airfoil is the chord line, a straight line drawn through the profile connecting the extremities of the leading and trailing edges. The distance from this chord line to the upper and lower surfaces of the wing denotes the magnitude of the upper and lower camber at any point. Another reference line, drawn from the leading edge to the trailing edge, is the “mean camber line.” This mean line is equidistant at all points from the upper and lower contours.
The construction of the wing, so as to provide actions greater than its weight, is done by shaping the wing so that advantage can be taken of the air’s response to certain physical laws, and thus develop two actions from the air mass; a positive pressure lifting action from the air mass below the wing, and a negative pressure lifting action from lowered pressure above the wing.
As the airstream strikes the relatively flat lower surface of the wing when inclined at a small angle to its direction of motion, the air is forced to rebound downward and therefore causes an upward reaction in positive lift, while at the same time airstream striking the upper curved section of the “leading edge” of the wing is deflected upward. In other words, a wing shaped to cause an action on the air, and forcing it downward, will provide an equal reaction from the air, forcing the wing upward. If a wing is constructed in such form that it will cause a lift force greater than the weight of the airplane, the airplane will fly.
However, if all the lift required were obtained merely from the deflection of air by the lower surface of the wing, an airplane would need only a flat wing like a kite. This, of course, is not the case at all; under certain conditions disturbed air currents circulating at the trailing edge of the wing could be so excessive as to make the airplane lose speed and lift. The balance of the lift needed to support the airplane comes from the flow of air above the wing. Herein lies the key to flight. The fact that most lift is the result of the airflow’s downwash from above the wing, must be thoroughly understood in order to continue further in the study of flight. It is neither accurate nor does it serve a useful purpose, however, to assign specific values to the percentage of lift generated by the upper surface of an airfoil versus that generated by the lower surface. These are not constant values and will vary, not only with flight conditions, but with different wing designs.
It should be understood that different airfoils have different flight characteristics. Many thousands of airfoils have been tested in wind tunnels and in actual flight, but no one airfoil has been found that satisfies every flight requirement. The weight, speed, and
purpose of each airplane dictate the shape of its airfoil. It was learned many years ago that the most efficient airfoil for producing the greatest lift was one that had a concave, or “scooped out” lower surface. Later it was also learned that as a fixed design, this type of airfoil sacrificed too much speed while producing lift and, therefore, was not suitable for high-speed flight. It is interesting to note, however, that through advanced progress in engineering, today’s high-speed jets can again take advantage of the concave airfoil’s high lift characteristics. Leading edge (Kreuger) flaps and trailing edge (Fowler) flaps, when extended from the basic wing structure, literally change the airfoil shape into the classic concave form, thereby generating much greater lift during slow flight conditions.
On the other hand, an airfoil that is perfectly streamlined and offers little wind resistance sometimes does not have enough lifting power to take the airplane off the ground. Thus, modern airplanes have airfoils which strike a medium between extremes in design, the shape varying according to the needs of the airplane for which it is designed. Figure 2-6 shows some of the more common airfoil sections.
LOW PRESSURE ABOVE
In a wind tunnel or in flight, an airfoil is simply a streamlined object inserted into a moving stream of air. If the airfoil profile were in the shape of a teardrop, the speed and the pressure changes of the air passing over the top and bottom would be the same on both sides. But if the teardrop shaped airfoil were cut in half lengthwise, a form resembling the basic airfoil (wing) section would result. If the airfoil were then inclined so the airflow strikes it at an angle (angle of attack), the air molecules moving over the upper surface would be forced to move faster than would the molecules moving along the bottom of the airfoil, since the upper molecules must travel a greater distance due to the curvature of the upper surface. This increased velocity reduces the pressure above the airfoil.
Bernoulli’s principle of pressure by itself does not explain the distribution of pressure over the upper surface of the airfoil. A discussion of the influence of momentum of the air as it flows in various curved paths near the airfoil will be presented. [Figure 2-7] Momentum is the resistance a moving body offers to having its direction or amount of motion changed. When a body is forced to move in a circular path, it offers resistance in the direction away from the center of the curved path. This is “centrifugal force.” While the particles of air move in the curved path AB, centrifugal force tends to throw them in the direction of the arrows between A and B and hence, causes the air to exert more than normal pressure on the leading edge of the airfoil. But after the air particles pass B (the point of reversal of the curvature of the path) the centrifugal force tends to throw them in the direction of the arrows between B and C (causing reduced pressure on the airfoil). This effect is held until the particles reach C, the second point of reversal of curvature of the airflow. Again the centrifugal force is reversed and the particles may even tend to give slightly more than normal pressure on the trailing edge of the airfoil, as indicated by the short arrows between C and D.
Therefore, the air pressure on the upper surface of the airfoil is distributed so that the pressure is much greater on the leading edge than the surrounding atmospheric pressure, causing strong resistance to forward motion; but the air pressure is less than surrounding atmospheric pressure over a large portion of the top surface (B to C).
As seen in the application of Bernoulli’s theorem to a venturi, the speedup of air on the top of an airfoil produces a drop in pressure. This lowered pressure is a component of total lift. It is a mistake, however, to assume that the pressure difference between the upper and lower surface of a wing alone accounts for the total lift force produced.
One must also bear in mind that associated with the lowered pressure is downwash; a downward backward flow from the top surface of the wing. As already seen from previous discussions relative to the dynamic action of the air as it strikes the lower surface of the wing, the reaction of this downward backward flow
results in an upward forward force on the wing. This same reaction applies to the flow of air over the top of the airfoil as well as to the bottom, and Newton’s third law is again in the picture.
HIGH PRESSURE BELOW
In the section dealing with Newton’s laws as they apply to lift, it has already been discussed how a certain amount of lift is generated by pressure conditions underneath the wing. Because of the manner in which air flows underneath the wing, a positive pressure results, particularly at higher angles of attack. But there is another aspect to this airflow that must be considered. At a point close to the leading edge, the airflow is virtually stopped (stagnation point) and then gradually increases speed. At some point near the trailing edge, it has again reached a velocity equal to that on the upper surface. In conformance with Bernoulli’s principles, where the airflow was slowed beneath the wing, a positive upward pressure was created against the wing; i.e., as the fluid speed decreases, the pressure must increase. In essence, this simply “accentuates the positive” since it increases the pressure differential between the upper and lower surface of the airfoil, and therefore increases total lift over that which would have resulted had there been no increase of pressure at the lower surface. Both Bernoulli’s principle and Newton’s laws are in operation whenever lift is being generated by an airfoil.
Fluid flow or airflow then, is the basis for flight in airplanes, and is a product of the velocity of the airplane. The velocity of the airplane is very important to the pilot since it affects the lift and drag forces of the airplane. The pilot uses the velocity (airspeed) to fly at a minimum glide angle, at maximum endurance, and for a number of other flight maneuvers. Airspeed is the velocity of the airplane relative to the air mass through which it is flying.
From experiments conducted on wind tunnel models and on full size airplanes, it has been determined that as air flows along the surface of a wing at different angles of attack, there are regions along the surface where the pressure is negative, or less than atmospheric, and regions where the pressure is positive, or greater than atmospheric. This negative pressure on the upper surface creates a relatively larger force on the wing than is caused by the positive pressure resulting from the air striking the lower wing surface. Figure 2-8 shows the pressure distribution along an airfoil at three different angles of attack. In general, at high angles of attack the center of pressure moves forward, while at low angles of attack the center of pressure moves aft. In the design of wing structures, this center of pressure travel is very important, since it affects the position of the airloads imposed on the wing structure in low angle-of-attack conditions and high angle-of-attack conditions. The airplane’s aerodynamic balance and controllability are governed by changes in the center of pressure.
The center of pressure is determined through calculation and wind tunnel tests by varying the airfoil’s angle of attack through normal operating extremes. As the angle of attack is changed, so are the various pressure distribution characteristics. [Figure 2-8] Positive (+) and negative (–) pressure forces are totaled for each angle of attack and the resultant force is obtained. The total resultant pressure is represented by the resultant force vector shown in figure 2-9.
The point of application of this force vector is termed the “center of pressure” (CP). For any given angle of attack, the center of pressure is the point where the resultant force crosses the chord line. This point is expressed as a percentage of the chord of the airfoil. A center of pressure at 30 percent of a 60inch chord would be 18 inches aft of the wing’s leading edge. It would appear then that if the designer would place the wing so that its center of pressure was at the airplane’s center of gravity, the airplane would always balance. The difficulty arises, however, that the location of the center of pressure changes with change in the airfoil’s angle of attack. [Figure 2-10]
In the airplane’s normal range of flight attitudes, if the angle of attack is increased, the center of pressure moves forward; and if decreased, it moves rearward. Since the center of gravity is fixed at one point, it is evident that as the angle of attack increases, the center of lift (CL) moves ahead of the center of gravity, creating a force which tends to raise the nose of the airplane or tends to increase the angle of attack still more. On the other hand, if the angle of attack is decreased, the center of lift (CL) moves aft and tends to decrease the angle a greater amount. It is seen then, that the ordinary airfoil is inherently unstable, and that an auxiliary device, such as the horizontal tail surface, must be added to make the airplane balance longitudinally.
The balance of an airplane in flight depends, therefore, on the relative position of the center of gravity (CG) and the center of pressure (CP) of the airfoil. Experience has shown that an airplane with the center of gravity in the vicinity of 20 percent of the wing chord can be made to balance and fly satisfactorily.
The tapered wing presents a variety of wing chords throughout the span of the wing. It becomes necessary then, to specify some chord about which the point of balance can be expressed. This chord, known as the mean aerodynamic chord (MAC), usually is defined as the chord of an imaginary untapered wing, which would have the same center of pressure characteristics as the wing in question.
Airplane loading and weight distribution also affect center of gravity and cause additional forces, which in turn affect airplane balance.
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The Airfoil & Theories of Lift
Have you noticed the curved shape of a bird's wing? An airplane's wing is curved also. A wing is designed for flight. It has a special shape called an airfoil. The airfoil shape provides a lifting force when air flows around it. Airfoil shapes can be found on wings, fans and propellers.
An airplane’s airfoil plays a very important role in lifting the aircraft. The airfoil is designed to increase the velocity of the airflow above its surface, thereby decreasing pressure above the airfoil. Simultaneously, the impact of the air on the lower surface of the airfoil increases the pressure below. This combination of pressure decrease above and increase below produces lift.
Airfoil Behavior and Influence on an Aircraft:
As a wing moves through air, the air is split and passes above and below the wing. The wing’s upper surface is shaped so the air rushing over the top speeds up and stretches out. This decreases the air pressure above the wing. The air flowing below the wing moves in a straighter line, so its speed and air pressure remains the same. Since high air pressure always moves toward low air pressure, the air below the wing pushes upward toward the air above the wing. The wing is in the middle, and the whole wing is “lifted.” The faster an airplane moves, the more lift there is. And when the force of lift is greater than the force of gravity, the airplane is able to fly.
The Four Forces of Flight
If you push a door closed, your push is a force. If you pull a drawer open, your pull is a force. A force actually has two parts. One part is the strength of the force. The other part is the direction of the force. Let's say you are pulling on a rope. Pull it to the right, then to the left. Pull it upwards and then pull it downwards. Where you pulled the rope is the direction of the force. A force has both magnitude and direction. In aeronautics, there are four important...
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A radio relay station in orbit above the earth that receives, amplifies and redirects analog and digital signals contained within a carrier frequency. Based on their distance from the earth, there are three categories: GEO, LEO and MEO.
Geostationary (GEO) satellites are in orbit 22,282 miles above the earth. Because they rotate with the earth, they appear motionless to an observer on the ground. The GEO downlink to earth can be localized into small areas or cover as much as a third of the globe's surface. Low-earth orbit (LEO) and medium-earth orbit (MEO) satellites are much closer to the ground, and they revolve around the planet. See GEO, LEO and MEO.
There are hundreds of commercial communications satellites in orbit providing private channels between business and government facilities as well as access to the Internet for the general public (see satellite Internet).
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Technologies cooperate to control critical mixing operation
Is sophisticated batch control rocket science? Mixing ablative coating for space shuttle rocket boosters requires very high levels of precision and repeatability.
In April 1981, Columbia, the first Space Shuttle, launched and orbited the earth 37 times before landing on a runway at Edwards Air Force Base in California. It was the first U.S. manned space vehicle launched without an unmanned powered test flight. NASA described the mission as: "The boldest test flight in history.”
NASA’s space program has been the source of many such feats that have sparked the imagination of children and writers for the past half century. But each of these missions is preceded by years of stringent adherence to safety and production requirements.
Safety, precision, and accuracy
After each countdown to ignition, a shuttle is propelled into space by trademark twin flames streaming from solid rocket boosters. Those twin boosters provide 80% of the shuttle launch thrust before they burn out, separate, and fall by parachute into the Atlantic Ocean. NASA recovery ships retrieve the shells and tow them to Hangar A/F, Cape Canaveral Air Force Station (CCAFS) in Florida, where they are disassembled.
Refurbishing the boosters for reuse takes place in two locations. The solid rocket booster subassemblies—the frustum, forward skirt, and aft skirt—are initially refurbished at Hangar A/F then transported to the United Space Alliance (USA) Assembly and Refurbishment Facility (ARF) at NASA’s Kennedy Space Center in Florida for final assembly and testing. Parachutes are refurbished and packed at the Parachute Refurbishment Facility and then shipped to the ARF. The reusable solid rocket motor segments and the nozzle, which steers the rockets during flight, are transported via railcar to Alliant Techsystems (ATK) in Utah, where they are reassembled, tested, and returned to Kennedy for remating. The entire process from retrieval to completion takes approximately a year.
Refurbishment and reuse
The engineering teams at USA’s ARF are bound by incredibly rigid production specifications, because anything more than a hairline deviation can severely affect the safety of a mission. Of the booster’s total weight of 1.25 million pounds, propellant accounts for 1.1 million pounds, which burns hot enough to damage the enclosure’s structural integrity. One of the materials used to protect the rocket boosters during ascent, descent, and splashdown is a USA-developed thermal protection system called booster trowelable ablative (BTA). Its consistency resembles that of automotive body filler but holds much better thermal properties. This is important because it protects the booster components from damage, enabling them to be reused time and time again.
The batch mixing of the insulation for use on the flight components is an automated process, and handled by two functionally identical machines. Micro Motion flowmeters release precise measures of resin and a catalyst into a mixing vessel, where a Charles Ross mixer blends them together to form the BTA insulation. The Kennedy facility prepares an average of five 3,000 g batches per day, but with specifications allowing for only ±2% deviation on any given batch, USA has a challenging job.
One of the machines is controlled by a Rockwell Automation Allen-Bradley ControlLogix PAC and the other by an SLC-500. USA’s engineers tried using 4-20 mA feedback between the controllers and the flowmeters, but found they were unable to obtain the needed level of accuracy and precision because the standard analog input module could not reach the data transfer rates required.
“In normal industry you can produce a similar product and get away with being 10-15% off and it wouldn’t make any difference,” explains Dan Dermody, control systems engineer at USA and the machine builder for this application. “But because of the environment that these solid rocket boosters operate in, there is absolutely no room for error.”
“We contacted Micro Motion and they pointed us to ProSoft Technology’s Modbus communication modules, which integrate directly into the ControlLogix and SLC-500 platforms,” Dermody explains. “We tested them out and quickly discovered that they provided the accuracy and precision we needed. The module collects flow data and feeds it directly into the ControlLogix data tables. This type of flow-control system maintains all of the process parameters, ensuring that nothing goes out of specification during mixing. The ProSoft module made the architecture we wanted to use possible, and we’ve stuck with that type of philosophy on our flowmeters ever since.”
While the new approach was a major improvement, it still required some fine-tuning to deliver the full benefit. “Once we brought the information over digitally it was a night-and-day difference,” Dermody adds. “Still, we were only barely achieving our goal and I knew something wasn’t right with the update rate. So, we worked with ProSoft to identify a controller programming problem which essentially caused the controller to write over data within a millisecond of when I was trying to read it. We now have the performance we need. We’re getting millisecond update times and we can control down to the gram level in a 2,000 gram batch.”
Because of the level of repeatable precision USA is able to accomplish with this solution, they are not required to test the adhesive delivery system continually to prove their accuracy.
NASA and the space program are currently undergoing a major directional shift with the end of the space shuttle program. Presently, USA is building up the parts for a second test flight for the Ares Program. While there has been no official decision on the exact architecture of the post-shuttle human spaceflight program, one fact will remain: the demanding environment in which rockets must perform will require materials with the highest quality standards made possible by innovative solutions.
Adrienne Lutovsky and Danetta Bramhall are staff writers for ProSoft Technology.
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This image of "moon tourists [discovering] the pleasures of this Moon beach," is from the 1988 book The Earth's Moon (Isaac Asimov's Library of the Universe).
Imagine seas on a terraformed Moon! By creating an atmosphere on the Moon, we could capture sunlight and turn the Moon into a celestial tourist trap. This would be fun, but many scientists feel it is more important to keep the Moon pretty much as it is. Then we could use it to help us better understand Earth and the cosmos.
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Standard Occupational Classification (SOC): Airline Pilots, Copilots, and Flight Engineers
Airline pilots, copilots, and flight engineers in healthcare are professionals who operate and maintain aircraft that are specifically designed for transporting patients and medical personnel. They are responsible for ensuring the safe and efficient operation of these aircraft, as well as providing assistance and support to patients and medical staff during flights. Some of the specific duties of airline pilots, copilots, and flight engineers in healthcare may include: Planning and executing safe and efficient flight routes, Monitoring and controlling the aircraft’s systems during flight, Communicating with air traffic control and other airport personnel to ensure the smooth flow of air travel, Assisting patients with boarding and disembarking the aircraft, Providing assistance and support to medical staff during flights, Performing pre-flight inspections and maintenance tasks on the aircraft, and Maintaining detailed flight logs and records. To become an airline pilot, copilot, or flight engineer in healthcare, you will typically need to have a bachelor’s degree in aviation or a related field and pass a series of rigorous exams and certifications. You will also need to have a valid pilot’s license and undergo extensive training in areas such as aviation safety, aircraft systems, and emergency procedures. Some employers may require you to have prior experience working in aviation or a related field.
Know anyone building innovative solutions that belong in this 'Airline Pilots, Copilots, and Flight Engineers'?
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How to Become an RN on a Rescue Helicopter
The medivac helicopter called to the scene of a car crash, near drowning or natural disaster likely has a registered helicopter nurse aboard. Flight nurses are trained to administer pre-hospital critical care and emergency medicine to patients in their fight to stay alive. A flight nurse employs high-risk skills – often within seconds – to stabilize a patient while en route to a medical facility for further treatment.
The more critical-care training you have, the more likely you are to land a position as a flight nurse in this exceptionally competitive field. Aeronautic weight limitations also apply to flight nurses. Life Flight Network, an emergency medical transport service, has a 250-pound maximum for its hires.
What Does a Helicopter Nurse Do?
Helicopter flight nurses are members of an aeromedical evacuation team of pilots, physicians and paramedics in the air and communication staff and mechanics on the ground. Paramedics at the disaster site attend to the patient’s vital needs until the flight nurse arrives to provide more intensive treatment.
The helicopter nurse manages the patient’s care, while trying to maintain his medical stability and keep him comfortable during flight. The flight nurse also helps plan and prepare for the rescue mission. In the physician’s absence, a flight nurse performs the initial critical-care procedures. An ability to think clearly and intervene appropriately can make all the difference in patient survival and recovery.
Acquire Nursing Credentials and Skills
A flight nurse’s initial training may start with a two-year associate degree in basic nursing and passing the RN licensing exam. Employers increasingly prefer bachelor’s or master’s degree-level training in nursing, however. Due to the intense demands of the job, flight nurses also need at least five years’ experience in an intensive care unit, emergency room or other critical-care hospital setting to be competitive when applying for a nursing job on a rescue helicopter.
Life Flight Network, a non-profit medical transport service operating in the Pacific Northwest, requires at least five years of ICU/ER/trauma experience in the last 10 years, for instance. Employers like Life Flight Network seek to hire RNs with previous flight experience, such as serving as active-duty military flight nurses. Experience as a search and rescue nurse can also be helpful.
Pursue Nursing Specialization
Many schools and professional organizations across the country offer postgraduate training for RNs, including training in ground and flight emergency services. For example, the Emergency Nurses Association offers a short Trauma Nursing course that focuses on assessing and stabilizing life-threatening injuries. Completing training and certification in emergency nursing can be advantageous when competing for coveted flight nurse jobs.
Flight nursing programs prepare students to administer emergency nursing and intensive-care, including advanced cardiac life support, neonatal resuscitation, pediatric advanced life support and prehospital trauma life support. Students are taught how to give emodynamic support, which ensures that the patient’s blood circulates properly, and mechanical ventilation to assist the patient with breathing. They also learn how to administer vasoactive medications, like dopamine and norepinephrine, which increase blood pressure and the heart’s output.
Complete Trauma Certification
The Board of Certification for Emergency Nurses offers certification options for flight nurses such as the Certified Emergency Nurse (CEN) and Certified Flight Registered Nursing (CFRN). The Board recommends, but does not require, two years of advanced trauma and critical care experience before attempting BCEN certification exams. Employers may require certification at the time of application or within a reasonable time frame upon hire.
Flight nurses generally are certified as emergency nurses or critical care nurses before taking flight nurse training and the certification exam. Licensing or certification is required in emergency medical treatment, basic and advanced life support, children’s emergency treatment and pre-hospital trauma support. At Life Flight Network, for example, flight nurses must have completed a trauma nursing core curriculum before being allowed to work independently.
- The more critical-care training you have, the more likely you are to land a position as a flight nurse in this exceptionally competitive field. Aeronautic weight limitations also apply to flight nurses. Life Flight Network has a 250-pound maximum for its hires.
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What is RCP and RSP?
RNP – required navigation performance. RCP – required communication performance. RSP – required surveillance performance. 6. Federal Aviation.
What is PBCS and where is it required?
The PBCS provides air traffic services providers with some level of assurance that the aircraft and flight crew meet the communication and surveillance requirements needed for the application of the performance-based separation standards.
What is PBCS airspace?
Performance Based Communications and Surveillance ( PBCS ) is the combination of the criteria of Performance Based Communication (PBC) and Performance Based Surveillance (PBS). These terms refer to communication and surveillance based on performance specifications applied to the provision of air traffic services.
What does RSP 180 mean?
Note RSP 180 means that 99.9% of surveillance data must be delivered in less than 180 seconds. RSP allocation is a portion of an RSP parameter and is a time value assigned to a. specific component of the communication system used for transferring surveillance. reports from aircraft to ATC.
Strategic lateral offset procedure ( SLOP ) is a solution to a byproduct of increased navigation accuracy in aircraft. SLOP allows aircraft to offset the centreline of an airway or flight route by a small amount, normally to the right, so that collision with opposite direction aircraft becomes unlikely.
What is PBCS?
PBCS is a flexible application based on Oracle Hyperion Planning that supports enterprise-wide planning, budgeting, and forecasting in a cloud-based deployment model. It supports a hierarchical planning process that encompasses both corporate finance and the lines of business within an enterprise.
What is fans Cpdlc?
CPDLC (Controller Pilot Data Link Communication) is the text-messaging component of FANS 1/A, and it allows two-way, digital communication between ATC and pilots when the aircraft is out of range of the analog-based VHF (very high frequency) or HF (high frequency) voice-radio communications.
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The head of Roscosmos noted that the United States can still fix this situation
MOSCOW, January 22. /tass/. Roscosmos Director General Dmitry Rogozin expressed hope that the US refusal to issue a visa to Russian cosmonaut Nikolai Chub is a misunderstanding that the United States can still fix.
"I hope that we have encountered a misunderstanding, so we will give our American colleagues a chance to correct this misunderstanding. Nevertheless, the sediment still remains," he said on Saturday on the air of the Echo of Moscow radio station.
Rogozin added that, perhaps, "the cold winds that are now blowing from Washington and from Brussels" to the Russian Federation began to be projected on space activities.
On January 22, Roscosmos reported that the safety of Russian cosmonaut Chub's stay on the ISS during the planned flight in 2023 was called into question due to the US refusal to issue him a visa. According to the state corporation, he needs an American visa for the first five-week session to familiarize himself with the American segment of the ISS. In connection with the refusal to issue a visa, the question arises at least with a change in the training schedule of the Forelock, Roscosmos added.
Earlier, a source told TASS that the United States, without explanation, refused to issue a visa to Chub, who was supposed to fly to the United States to participate in training at the Space Center. Johnson. Later, the head of Roscosmos, Dmitry Rogozin, confirmed this information, specifying that he had requested NASA's position on this issue.
Usually, before the flight, astronauts from other countries undergo training at the Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center in Zvezdny Gorodok, mastering the Russian segment of the ISS, and Russian cosmonauts - at the Space Center named after Yuri Gagarin. Johnson is in Houston, where they get acquainted with the American segment. The training takes place regardless of which ship the crew members are flying on.
Nikolai Chub is part of the backup crew of the ISS-68 expedition, which is scheduled to fly on the Soyuz MS-22 spacecraft in September 2022. He is also part of the main crew of the ISS-69 expedition, which is scheduled to fly on Soyuz MS-23 in the spring of next year.
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The history and background to the formation of the Inviroate Commonwealth of the Federated Worlds is described here.
NASA begins its ‘Flight to Mars’ exploration programme, re-igniting interest in space travel.
A permanent research base is established on the Moon by NASA.
The first astronauts land on Mars.
The European Space Agency and NASA agree to a co-operation agreement to become the North Atlantic Space Exploration Agency (NASEA).
In an effort to catch up with NASEA, the China National Space Administration, Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency and Russian Federal Space Agency form a pact called the Tiger Astronautic Consortium (TAC).
The first permanent base is established on Mars by NASEA.
Full-time mining operations begin on Mars; a new base element, named Xanatium, is discovered on Mars.
NASEA shares its Xanatium resources with the TAC, which develops a prototype of the reaction drive enabling super-fast space travel. In exchange, TAC shares its prototype engine with NASEA.
TAC cosmonauts orbit Jupiter and undertake experiments to harvest minerals from the gaseous clouds around Jupiter; an arms race between the East and West develops as the extent of the vast Jovian resources become known.
Tension escalates between East and West following an incident around Jupiter in which a cosmonaut is killed during a space walk. Allegations by TAC are made against the NASEA astronauts accusing them of murder.
Tension continues to build, eventually culminating in a devastating war fought between East and West over the rights to exploitation of planetary resources. Large parts of North America become uninhabitable due to the use of nuclear weapons by the Asian forces.
The whole of North America is declared an environmental disaster zone at the Earth Summit held in Bangalore.
After a series of co-ordinated military coups in China, Korea and Japan, the Pan-Asian government is formed as a benign dictatorship; Pan-Asia launches a humanitarian scheme to help the dispossessed population of North America.
A new prototype of the Xanatium reaction drive is unveiled by TAC, which allows spacecraft to travel at close to the speed of light.
The Anatoly Heavy Engineering Company is awarded the contract to construct an exploration vehicle for the TAC mission to explore deep space. Allegations of corruption surround the company executives and government officials involved in negotiating the contract.
The first mission beyond the Solar System is launched, although the ship, the Solar Orbiter, is never heard from again once it passes Pluto. The crew are presumed dead.
Another manned mission is launched, aboard the Solar Orbiter iI, to explore beyond the edge of the Solar System.
The Solar Orbiter II returns from its mission bringing valuable data about the galaxy.
Dr Helmut Strane and his team of bio-researchers pioneer a micro-surgical technique for implanting bionic components into monkeys
With some planets, moons and habitats growing in wealth and influence, a summit of Earth leaders agree to form a pan-Earth government under the International Concord Agreement, which creates five semi-autonomous governmental districts.
The first sitting of the new Earth government meets in Buenos Aires. During the inaugural session, a rogue habitat orbiting Earth launches a missile strike killing thousands in the new capital.
The first of many spaceships are launched towards Earth’s nearest star systems to begin colonisation in what is to become known as the First Region.
Celebrity reporter, Waazuu, exposes Dr Strane who is incarcerated for illegally buying and experimenting on prisoners.
Continue to the next page of the Commonwealth's history.
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Yes, India bought second-hand Rafale jets from France.
Now let’s take a closer look
As an expert in the field of defense acquisitions and military technology, I can provide detailed insights into the procurement of second-hand Rafale jets by India from France.
Yes, it is true that India bought second-hand Rafale jets from France. The decision to acquire these aircraft was made to augment the Indian Air Force’s combat capabilities and address the urgent requirement of advanced fighter jets. Let’s delve into the details and shed light on some interesting facts about this acquisition.
India signed an Inter-Governmental Agreement (IGA) with France in 2016 to purchase 36 Rafale jets.
- The deal was finalized at a cost of around €7.87 billion ($8.8 billion) and included a range of associated weapons and equipment.
These second-hand jets were initially intended for the French Air Force, but were repurposed for India.
Context and Background:
The need to enhance India’s defense capabilities along its borders, including an aging fleet of fighter jets, prompted the decision to acquire the Rafale aircraft.
The Rafale, manufactured by Dassault Aviation, is a twin-engine, multi-role fighter jet known for its advanced avionics, superior performance, and weapon-carrying capacity.
Key Features of Rafale:
The Rafale jets are equipped with advanced technologies such as Active Electronically Scanned Array (AESA) radar and Helmet-Mounted Display (HMD) systems, providing a significant edge in combat situations.
- These aircraft have a maximum speed of Mach 1.8 (1,912 km/h) and a range of 3,700 km, enabling them to undertake long-range missions.
With a wide range of weapon systems, including air-to-air and air-to-ground missiles, precision-guided munitions, and bombs, the Rafale jets offer significant firepower to the Indian Air Force.
Delivery and Operationalization:
The delivery of the first Rafale jet took place in October 2019, with the remaining aircraft being progressively delivered.
- The Indian Air Force has commenced the operationalization of these jets at multiple airbases across the country and has integrated them into its combat formations.
In conclusion, India’s acquisition of second-hand Rafale jets from France has significantly bolstered its air defense capabilities. These advanced fighter aircraft, equipped with cutting-edge technologies and weaponry, serve as a force multiplier for the Indian Air Force. The procurement deal has taken India’s defense partnership with France to new heights, paving the way for closer cooperation in the defense sector.
As the famous military strategist Sun Tzu once said, “Victorious warriors win first and then go to war, while defeated warriors go to war first and then seek to win.” The acquisition of second-hand Rafale jets aligns with the pursuit of victory through strategic investments in advanced military assets, ensuring a stronger defense posture for India.
Table: Comparison of Rafale Variants
|Rafale Variant||Key Features|
|Rafale C||Single-seat variant primarily used for air-to-air combat|
|Rafale B||Twin-seat variant with the capability of carrying nuclear weapons|
|Rafale M||Carrier-based variant, operated by the French Navy|
|Rafale Indian Variant||Modified version tailored to meet the Indian Air Force’s needs|
Please note: The table provides a comparison between some Rafale variants. It is important to seek further information from official sources and experts for a comprehensive understanding of the various Rafale jet models.
In this video, you may find the answer to “Did India buy 2nd hand Rafale?”
I discovered more solutions online
After mega-deals with UAE, India & Egypt, France is also selling second-hand Rafale fighters to Croatia and Greece while India is also procuring used jets from France and Russia.
Nearly one- and-half years after Prime Minister Narendra Modi announced the proposal during a visit to Paris, finally in September 2016, India signed an inter-governmental agreement with France, dubbed as "Rafale deal", in which India will pay about ₹ 58,000 crore or 7.8 billion Euros for 36 off-the-shelf Dassault Rafale twin-engine fighters.
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The Exploration of Pluto by NASA’s New Horizons (Flyer)
PI, NASA’s New Horizons Mission / Southwest Research Institute
New Horizons is NASA’s historic mission to explore the Pluto system and the Kuiper Belt. The fastest spacecraft ever launched, New Horizons left Earth on 19 January 2006. It made the first exploration of the Pluto system—3 billion miles from Earth—last summer, culminating with a highly successful flyby inside the orbits of all five of Pluto’s moons on July 14th. Dr. Stern will describe the history of the mission, the encounter with planet Pluto, and the major scientific discoveries made to date, and the public reaction to the flyby.
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To ask the Secretary of State for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy, what assessment he has made of the effect of reduced participation in EU Space programmes on the (a) maintenance levels of (i) experience and (ii) skills in the UK’s space Industrial base and (b) the capacity to deliver future National Space Programmes including GNSS.
The UK space sector is one of the fastest growing areas of the UK economy and, as a world leader in satellite and secure software technology, the UK space industry creates high-skilled jobs across the UK.
As the recently published ‘Size and Health of the UK Space Industry’ report highlights, the UK space sector is worth an estimated £14.8 billion. It employs 41,900 people and contributes £5.7 billion to UK GDP. Income dependent on EU space programmes represents a relatively small proportion (2.5%) of the total income for the sector. As the UK’s withdraws from the European Union (EU), it is important that the UK continues to champion the sector, including supporting opportunities for exports and strengthening the UK’s active role in the European Space Agency (ESA). ESA is a non-EU intergovernmental organisation and is a world leader in the exploration of space.
The UK has the skills, expertise and commitment to deliver future National space programmes, including a possible UK GNSS, and this programme represents a significant opportunity for the UK in line with the Government’s modern Industrial Strategy. This will help to ensure important skills and knowledge are retained within the UK and that the UK’s successful space sector continues to thrive.
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Assess the safety of air carriers engaged in independent transport agency ATRA, which is located in Switzerland. The agency uses a scientific approach and multi-factor analysis to generate annual ratings for insurance companies, financial sector and other professional companies. For consumers the rating will not be published. Only 10 Company list, occupying top positions are published every year.
The list of the safest airlines in 2014 according to data for the year 2012 year
1. Air China
Air China Ltd owned by the Government of China Airlines, the second after China Southern Airlines China Airlines. It is the flag carrier and the only airline, China's flag carrier on its aircraft.
2. Air France KLM Group
Air France-KLM - European airline holding. Headquartered at the airport Charles de Gaulle, near Paris. The holding includes KLM, Air France and other.
3. AMR Corporation (American Airlines)
American aviation holding company headquartered in Fort Worth (Texas), owns three certified commercial air carriers: the main airline American Airlines, regional airlines Executive Airlines, Eagle Aviation Services and trademark American Eagle Airlines, under which the number of regional and local carriers US.
4. China Southern Airlines Group
China Southern Airlines - the largest Asian airline by fleet size, Asia's biggest carrier, 7-I'm the world's airline passengers on the transport of local, 7-I am in the world airline passenger traffic on scheduled flights in passenger-kilometers.
5. International Airlines Group (British Airways и Iberia)
International Airlines Group - the international aviation holding company with headquarters in London and the official registration in Madrid, It was formed in January 2011 by the merger British Airways and Iberia - Flag carrier and the UK and Spain.
6. Delta Air Lines
Delta Air Lines, Inc., also known, how easy Delta - American Airlines. headquartered in Atlanta, GA. One of the four founding companies passenger airline alliance SkyTeam.
7. Lufthansa Group
Lufthansa German Airlines, better known as Lufthansa - Flag carrier of Germany, Europe's largest aviakontserna, includes such large airlines, how Swiss International Airlines and Austrian Airlines.
8. Southwest Airlines
Southwest Airlines - American low-cost airline, Founded in 1971 year. Southwest Airlines - the largest low-cost airline in the United States and the world in the number of passengers, and second of all airlines.
9. United Continental Holdings (United Airlines)
United Airlines - American Airlines, one of the largest in the United States and around the world. After the merger with the airline Continental Airlines, officially completed 1 October 2010 year, United Airlines was the largest airline in the world. United Airlines was the first airline, which began offering passengers of commercial flights powered, for what, for the first time in the world, He introduced to their aircraft flight attendant position.
10. US Airways Group
The company became part of American Airlines and ceased to exist in October 2015 year.
List of criteria, which are analyzed Security airlines 2014 year:
- Net financial result
- Passenger load factor
- Total number of employees
- The total number of pilots / co-pilots
- The total number of pilots and cabin staff
- The total amount of plaque in km
- The total number of aircraft in operation
- The average age of the aircraft
- The percentage of aircraft “to order” (Percentage of aircraft on order)
- A homogeneous fleet Airbus or Boeing
- Uniformity Park
- The number of aircraft that are out of production
- Number of aircraft which are considered risky
- The number of accidents in the last 10 year old
- The cost of maintaining the fleet
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Taipei: Taiwan has found the debris of a missing Air Force F-16V fighter plane that went missing on Tuesday during a routine training mission but did not find any sign of the pilot, reported local media.
Rescuers found debris belonging to a missing Air Force F-16V fighter on Wednesday morning but there were no signs of its pilot, according to the National Rescue Command Center (NRCC), reported Focus Taiwan.
A military UH-60M helicopter first spotted debris from the aircraft tires, at around 10:48 am Wednesday, said NRCC.
However, it did not specify where the objects were seen.
Later, the Taiwan military confirmed at 11:19 am that the debris belonged to the jet with the serial number 6650 piloted by Captain Chen Yi.
So far, the rescuers have not been able to locate Chen as they search him for a second day on Wednesday.
The F-16 aircraft vanished off the radar during a routine training mission in Taiwan on Tuesday. The Taiwanese air force had launched a search-and-rescue operation to find the jet which had taken off from the Chiayi Air Base at 2:55 pm [06:55GMT].
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|Best price found||£99||The best flight deal from Southampton to Paris found on momondo in the last 72 hours is £99|
|Fastest flight time||3h 20m||The fastest flight from Southampton to Paris takes 3h 20m|
|Direct flights||None||There are no direct flights from Southampton to Paris. Popular non-direct routes for this connection are Southampton Eastleigh Airport - Paris Orly Airport, Southampton Eastleigh Airport - Paris Beauvais-Tille Airport and Southampton Eastleigh Airport - Paris Charles de Gaulle Airport.|
|Airports in Paris||4 airports||There are 4 airports near Paris: Paris Paris-Le Bourget (LBG), Paris Charles de Gaulle (CDG), Paris Orly (ORY), Paris Beauvais-Tille (BVA)|
The cheapest time of year to fly to Paris from Southampton is August. The most expensive is December.
The cheapest day of the week is usually Tuesday. The most expensive is usually Saturday.
in the evening
Southampton to Paris flights are approximately 28% more expensive in the afternoon than in the evening
Air France, Flybe, and easyJet are the most popular carriers operating from Southampton to Paris
Southampton Eastleigh - Paris Charles de Gaulle
Fly from Southampton Eastleigh to Paris Charles de Gaulle for the best Southampton - Paris flight prices
55 days before
The cheapest time to buy a flight from Southampton to Paris is approximately 55 days to departure
Due to the global impact of COVID-19, some of our airline partners operating flights from Southampton Eastleigh to Paris, such as Flybe, Air France, and easyJet may have flexible cancellation policies in place. Use our site to search for all of the airlines offering this flexibility to you.
A flight from Southampton Eastleigh to Paris will travel around 218.8 mi. 3h 20m is a normal flight duration for this route.
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US 7620374 B2
A system and method of transmitting data from an aircraft includes a PC card that acquires aircraft data and transmits the aircraft data over a radio frequency communications signal into the skin of the aircraft, which radiates the radio frequency communications signal to a location remote from the aircraft.
1. A method of transmitting aircraft data comprising:
acquiring data within a memory of a PC card comprising a PC card body having a PCMCIA form factor and that is interfaced with an aircraft component;
retrieving the aircraft data from the memory based on commands received from a processor contained within the PC card; and
transmitting the retrieved aircraft data from a transmitter contained within the PC card along a radio frequency signal and passively coupling RF energy into the skin of the aircraft, which is operative as a passive radiator to re-radiate the radio frequency communications signal to a location remote from the aircraft such that the RF communications signal is transmitted without use of a separate antenna mounted on the aircraft.
2. A method according to
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7. A method according to
8. A method according to
9. A method according to
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11. A method according to
12. A PC card that interfaces with an aircraft component for transmitting aircraft data received from the aircraft component comprising:
a PC card body having a PCMCIA form factor;
a PC card interface adapted for connecting to an aircraft component;
a memory for storing aircraft data received from the aircraft component;
a radio transmitter for receiving aircraft data from the memory and transmitting the aircraft data over a radio frequency signal and passively coupling RF energy into the skin of the aircraft, which is operative as a passive radiator to re-radiate the radio frequency communications signal to a location remote from the aircraft such that the RF communications signal is transmitted without use of a separate antenna mounted on the aircraft;
a processor operatively connected to the PC card interface, memory and radio transmitter for reading and forwarding data from memory to the radio transmitter; and
a logic circuit operative with the memory, processor and PC card interface for controlling the downloading of data from the aircraft component to the memory and the reading and forwarding of data from the memory to the radio transmitter without conflict between the processor and aircraft component.
13. A PC card according to
14. A PC card according to
15. A PC card according to
16. A PC card according to
17. A PC card that interfaces with an aircraft component for transmitting aircraft data received from the aircraft component comprising:
a PC card body having a PCMCIA form factor;
a PC card interface adapted for connecting to the aircraft component;
a memory for storing aircraft data received from the aircraft component;
a radio transceiver for receiving aircraft data from the memory and transmitting the aircraft data over a radio frequency communications signal and passively coupling RF energy into the skin of the aircraft, which is operative as a passive radiator and to re-radiate the radio frequency communications signal to a location remote from the aircraft such that the RF communications signal is transmitted without use of a separate antenna mounted on the aircraft, and receiving data over a radio frequency communications signal for onboard processing;
a processor operatively connected to the PC card interface, memory and radio transmitter for reading and forwarding data from memory to the radio transmitter and controlling receipt of data for onboard processing; and
a logic circuit operative with the memory, processor and PC card interface to aid in controlling the downloading of data from the aircraft component to the memory, and the reading and forwarding of data from the memory to the radio transmitter without conflict between the processor and aircraft component.
18. A PC card according to
19. A PC card according to
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The present invention relates to communication systems, and more particularly, the present invention relates to a system and method of transmitting data from an aircraft.
A Digital Acquisition Unit (DAU), also known by some skilled in the art as a DFDAU, receives signals from many on-board aircraft systems. The DAU processes the data as Flight Operations Quality Assurance (FOQA) data, which is recovered from the aircraft by different prior art techniques. For example, a PCMCIA card may connect into an auxiliary PCMCIA slot of the Data Acquisition Unit and record data into a flash memory of the card. Once the data is collected into flash memory, airline operators manually replace the PCMCIA cards with a new card and retrieve the aircraft data from the flash memory of the old card.
Other prior art techniques for collecting this aircraft data include wireless systems, which often require costly aircraft modifications. For example, a separate unit to record data, such as a ground data link unit, is required, and an additional aircraft antenna must be mounted on the fuselage. Often aircraft wiring changes are made. These ground data link units require a data processor, a data collection circuit, a wireless LAN radio, a power amplifier, and external fuselage antenna. Multiple line receiver units are also often required adding to the significant investment made by an aircraft operator.
Examples of a ground data link systems that have been used in an aircraft are disclosed in commonly assigned U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,047,165; 6,104,914; 6,108,523; 6,148,179; 6,154,636; 6,154,637; 6,160,998; 6,163,681; 6,167,238; 6,167,239; 6,173,159; 6,308,044; 6,308,045; 6,353,734; 6,522,867; and 6,745,010, the disclosures which are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety.
It would be desirable, however, to extract Flight Operations Quality Assurance data or other aircraft data from an aircraft component, such as a DAU, in a less complicated and costly system, rather than using a ground data link unit or manually replacing flash memory PCMCIA cards.
The present invention advantageously provides a turn-key solution in a removable PC card, which includes a storage memory, control logic circuitry, a processor, and a radio transceiver for transmitting aircraft data along a radio frequency signal. In one aspect of the present invention, the skin of the aircraft receives the radio frequency signal and radiates the radio frequency signal to a location remote from the aircraft, for example, access points of a local area network. The transmitter is preferably operative in accordance with 802.11 standards in which aircraft data is transmitted over a spread spectrum communications signal, such as a frequency hopping spread spectrum communications signal or a direct sequence spread spectrum communications signal.
The data can be transmitted to a Central Maintenance Display Unit (CMDU), indicating in real-time the health and status of aircraft systems. The data can be flight performance data, such as Flight Operations Quality Assurance (FOQA) data from the DAU, aircraft engine data, in-flight entertainment data, or aircraft data relating to aircraft contents, passenger data, aircraft departure and arrival, passenger transactions, or a sky marshall. The PC card preferably is formed as a PCMCIA card with a desired form factor, for example, a Type III PCMCIA card.
In one aspect of the present invention, the PC card includes a PC card interface adapted for connecting to an aircraft component, such as the DAU. A memory stores aircraft data received from the aircraft component. A radio transmitter receives the aircraft data from the memory and transmits the aircraft data over a radio frequency signal. A processor is operatively connected to the PC card interface, memory and radio transmitter for reading and forwarding data from the memory to the radio transmitter. A logic circuit is operative with the memory, processor and PC card interface for controlling the downloading of data from the aircraft component to the memory and the reading and the forwarding of data from the memory to the radio transmitter without conflict between the processor and aircraft component.
In one aspect of the present invention, the logic circuit comprises a field programmable gate array. The PC card body preferably has a PCMCIA form factor. The transmitter preferably comprises a spread spectrum transmitter for transmitting aircraft data over a spread spectrum communications signal, which could be a frequency hopping or direct sequence spread spectrum communications signal. The PC card can also include a receiver as part of a transceiver that receives data for on-board processing. This type of received data could comprise at least data for specifying one of the power limits, frequency or type of aircraft data to be transmitted.
Other objects, features and advantages of the present invention will become apparent from the detailed description of the invention which follows, when considered in light of the accompanying drawings in which:
The present invention will now be described more fully hereinafter with reference to the accompanying drawings, in which preferred embodiments of the invention are shown. This invention may, however, be embodied in many different forms and should not be construed as limited to the embodiments set forth herein. Rather, these embodiments are provided so that this disclosure will be thorough and complete, and will fully convey the scope of the invention to those skilled in the art. Like numbers refer to like elements throughout, and prime notation is used to indicate similar elements in alternative embodiments.
The present invention automatically and without manual intervention allows Flight Operations Quality Assurance (FOQA) or other aircraft data to be extracted from an aircraft component, such as the Digital Acquisition Unit (DAU), into a PC card, without requiring airline operators to manually replace the PC cards to obtain the FOQA data, as in many prior art systems. The present invention is also advantageous over prior art wireless systems, which normally require costly aircraft modification, including the use of a separate unit to record aircraft data, an external aircraft antenna mounted on the fuselage, and aircraft wiring changes.
The present invention uses a single PC card, for example, a PC card operable in accordance with the Personal Computer Memory Card International Association (PCMCIA). The present invention uses the passive radiation coupling of a radio frequency communications signal into the skin of the fuselage, which radiates, i.e., re-radiates the radio frequency communications signal received from the PC card, which had radiated the signal from its antenna, and eliminates the necessity for adding an additional, external aircraft antenna mounted on the fuselage.
Prior art systems include the use of a flash memory PCMCIA card, or an integrated system such as the ground data link systems disclosed in the above-identified, commonly assigned, and incorporated by reference patents. The ground data link system disclosed in those patents sometimes require multiple Local Receiver Units (LRU's) and a data collection unit having a central processing unit, a wireless local area network (LAN) radio, a power amplifier, and an external fuselage antenna.
The ground data link unit as disclosed in the above-identified and incorporated by reference patents operates with the ARINC 763 system, and is connected into the Data Acquisition Unit (DAU) (also known as the DFDAU), typically through the optional auxiliary output using an ARINC 429 link.
The Digital Access Unit system typically includes a separate central processing unit (CPU) for a mandatory portion or segment that connects by a ARINC 717 link to the Digital Flight Data Recorder (DFDR). The DAU receives sensor information from the aircraft engines, flaps, electronics and numerous other aircraft systems, sometimes as many as 2,000 different systems in large commercial aircraft. An optional portion of the DAU typically includes a separate CPU and an optional/auxiliary output, for example, formed as a PCMCIA slot. The prior art multiple-LARU approach using an external fuselage antenna and a ground data link unit, or similar devices, typically required expensive equipment acquisition and aircraft modifications. This often required that the aircraft be out-of-service to place the system in operation. Also, sometimes FAA certification was required, which took time after or before installation.
Although some prior art systems include a standard PCMCIA Type II memory card interfaced to the DAU, the card still had to be manually removed for data retrieval. Other prior art systems used quick access recorders having optical/magnetic media, which had to be removed for data retrieval.
The present invention allows aircraft operators to extract aircraft data, such as Flight Operations Quality Assurance (FOQA) data, from the aircraft while minimizing their costs of such retrieval.
The present invention uses a removable PC card, such as a PCMCIA card, with a flash storage memory circuit, control logic circuitry, a processor, wide local area network (WLAN) radio drivers, and a complete 802.11 WLAN transceiver that transmits the aircraft data and receives data for on-board processing. The use of a PC card reduces cost to the aircraft operator without requiring the aircraft to be out-of-service while a system is installed. No external antenna is required because the aircraft skin and fuselage acts as a passive radiator, in accordance with the present invention, to transmit or receive data from the aircraft. This can optimize transmission from the aircraft and reduce internal aircraft multipath attenuation.
As illustrated in
A communication circuit 50 C01/C02 interfaces between the PC card interface 34 and the data/communications bus on the development header interface 44 between the central processing unit 42 and the field programmable gate array 36. A supervisor circuit 52 is operable with the field programmable gate array 36 as a logic circuit and monitors the PC card operation and its interface with the DAU 20 for controlling the downloading of data from an aircraft component to the memory, and the reading and forwarding of the aircraft data from the memory to the radio transmitter section 32 a of the radio transceiver 32 without conflict between the processor and the aircraft component. The supervisor circuit 52 and FPGA 36 permit the disconnection of the CPU 42 in the PC card, and allows the CPU in the DAU 20 to control data extraction from the DAU into the ATA-512 megabyte compact flash memory 40 of the PC card 30. The supervisor 52 and FPGA 36 allows the CPU 42 to read aircraft data from the compact flash memory 26 and forward the aircraft data to the transceiver 32, where the transmitter section 32 a of the transceiver wirelessly transmits the aircraft data as a radio frequency communications signal into the skin of the aircraft, which reradiates the radio frequency communications signal to a location remote from the aircraft.
The PC card 30 can include two antenna connections, RP-SMA 54, allowing connection of the transceiver to small linear or other antennas about one or two inches long. Preferably, a conformal antenna would be used, conforming in design to the illustrated Type III PCMCIA card, as one non-limiting example. It should be understood that other form factors can be used in the present invention besides the PCMCIA Type III form factor. The transceiver 32 also includes a receiver circuit 32 b, which is operative to receive data for specifying one of the power limits, frequency or type of aircraft data.
In a preferred aspect of the present invention, the WLAN wireless transceiver 32 is operable to transmit aircraft data over a spread spectrum communications signal, such as a frequency hopping or direct sequence spread spectrum communications signal. Preferably the transceiver 32 transfers the aircraft data over a radio frequency signal that is in accordance with 802.11 family of specifications for wireless LAN technology and, in one aspect of the present invention, in accordance with 802.11(b), high rate or the Wi-Fi standard, which applies to wireless LAN's and provides 11 Mbps transmission with a fallback to 5.5, 2 and 1 Mbps in the 2.4 GHz band.
Preferably only a direct sequence spread spectrum communications signal is used, but frequency hopping spread spectrum communications systems can be used in other embodiments, as well as other spread spectrum systems, including modified chirp and similar systems. The present invention also allows wireless functionality, comparable to Ethernet. It should be understood, however, that besides 802.11(b) protocol, other 802.11 or other communication protocols, including different types of complementary code keying (CCK) used with direct sequence spread spectrum technology can be used. The system could include Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) by encrypting data and Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA), which improves security features of the Wired Equivalent Privacy. The system can include improved data encryption through a Temporal Key Integrity Protocol (TKIP), which scrambles the keys using a hashing algorithm and uses an integrity-checking feature. The system can have user authentication through an Extensible Authentication Protocol (EAP), which together with WEP, regulates access to a wireless network based on a computer-hardware specific Media Access Controller (MAC) address. EAP can be built on a secure public key encryption system to ensure only authorized network users access any local area or other network that receives the aircraft data. Other types of frequency-shift keying or phase-shift keying methods can be used for the present invention.
Because the PC card 30 of the present invention has a receiver 32 b as part of its transceiver 32 function, data can be uploaded, including control signals for specifying which portions of data are to be retrieved from the aircraft component and transmitted. Also, because the PC card of the present invention has a desired form factor, for example, a Type III PCMCIA form factor, the PC card can be connected into other PC card slots for different aircraft components, including PC card slots that may be positioned on the aircraft engine, in the cockpit, in the cargo compartment, or in the main passenger seating area.
The aircraft data could also comprise flight performance data or aircraft engine data received from a WEMS module 94 mounted on the FADEC 82. An example of a WEMS module is disclosed in commonly assigned U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/774,578, filed Feb. 9, 2004, entitled “Wireless Engine Monitoring System,” the disclosure which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. Also, the aircraft data could be related to at least one of aircraft contents, passenger data, aircraft departure and arrival, or passenger transactions. Aircraft data could also be received from a hand-held unit, such as disclosed in the incorporated by reference '010 patent. Data can be transmitted to the flight deck if applicable.
It should be understood that the PC card 30 of the present invention can have other functions because it includes a transceiver for receiving data for on-board processing. This received data could be instructions for varying the power or frequency of a transmission. Also, various audio, video and navigation files could be uploaded and transferred from the PC card into an aircraft component, for example, an in-flight entertainment file server or the DAU, and then into other aircraft systems.
The PC card of the present invention can also be operative for transmitting aircraft data at a first higher data rate when the aircraft is on the ground, and a second, substantially lower data rate when the aircraft is airborne in close proximity to an airport, for example, as disclosed in the above-identified and incorporated by reference '681 patent. It is also possible to transmit over a plurality of sub-band frequency channels where the frequency can be chosen based upon the position of the aircraft determined by an on-board global positioning system, as disclosed in the above-identified and incorporated by reference '238 patent. Flight management data can also be uploaded. The PC card 30 of the present invention could include the functions as disclosed in the incorporated by reference patents.
The PC card 30 of the present invention is also advantageous because it wirelessly transmits aircraft data from the aircraft without requiring an external antenna mounted on the fuselage. It has been found that the aircraft skin can be used as a passive radiator. As a result, it is possible to shorten the time and decrease the effort used in the recovery of aircraft data for off-site analysis. Experimental results have shown the advantages of this system and method.
Experiments were conducted showing the feasibility of using the aircraft skin by using an IEEE 802.11b wireless Local Area Network (LAN) card operating in a PC card slot of a laptop computer. The aircraft used was a Canadair CL-604 regional jet aircraft. The laptop for this test was placed in a rear equipment bay, which is outside of the pressure hull. It is vented to the atmosphere through a set of louvers on the belly of the aircraft. The laptop was set to run on its own battery power for the duration of the test. The importance of this fact is to note that there was no coupling of the electrical systems (DC or RF) of the aircraft and the laptop computer. The laptop was set to perform a “ping” operation continuously to provide a steady stream of packets for the Radio Frequency (RF) measurements.
The tests consisted of two parts. The first test was a series of measurements taken at a distance of 20 meters from the center of the aircraft (
The measurement equipment included an Agilent model 8563 EC spectrum analyzer connected through a 6 meter cable to a 2.4 GHz test antenna. The antenna was mounted on a nonconductive pole approximately 2 meters long. This height placed it at the outer bulge of the aircraft skin and above the level of local sources of multi-path and other unintentional re-radiators.
The first 20 meter test was intended to ascertain the far field pattern of radiation within the available tamp space of the airport while at a reasonably large distance from the aircraft. The second 2 meter test was intended to examine the close-in far field for point-like or line-like radiators which would contribute disproportionately to the far field pattern or conversely eliminate them as major contributors.
The data from the first test (20 meter) was tabulated and plotted in a polar format below as later shown in the graph of
The smooth nature of the curve depicted in
The RF field data from the second set of measurements for the close-in portion of the far field was plotted on a rectilinear graph based on a scaled image of the aircraft obtained from the manufacturer's maintenance manual. This transposition is shown above in
The data in this matrix has been plotted in a three dimensional representation, which is presented in two views. The first view shown in
Based upon these results, it was possible to create a direct comparison between the two field plots either mathematically, graphically or both. This was accomplished by converting the rectilinear coordinates of the near-skin plot to polar coordinates and plotting the data in two curves on one polar plot. Data for the results is shown below and a two curve plot of the 20 meter and 2 meter data for comparison purposes is shown in
The two curves indicate the possible mechanisms for the RF radiation pattern from the aircraft. Certain points of interest are: (a) neither curve exhibits significant variability as would be the case if the sources were a small number of discreet emission sources; (b) the two curves almost overlay one another forward of the wing area, the region farthest from the internal RF source. They are not grossly divergent aft of the wing area; and (c) the power level of the radiation is not decreasing at the rate of a point source, i.e., 1/r2, it is more like the emission from a line source, 1/r.
Two credible mechanisms to explain the RF radiation patterns are: (1) a large number of discreet emitters distributed fairly uniformly around the aircraft; or (2) the excitation of the aircraft skin with concomitant radiation of a uniform nature, tailing off only as a result conduction losses in the skin as the surface wave moves from the source area aft to the forward area. A third possibility is, of course, a combination of these two mechanisms.
The possibility of discrete sources distributed over the aircraft skin was explored and discarded. Two areas of possible strong radiation from openings were also examined to determine if any fuselage opening account for the strength of RF emissions. The cockpit windows and the louvered hatch into the aft equipment bay containing the laptop was examined. Placing the antenna directly in front of the cockpit window produced no change in the measured field as compared to 2 or 20 meters directly forward of the nose. A double layer of metalized mylar sheeting was placed over the louvers in the aft hatch and prior readings were repeated. An approximately 1 dB drop in received power level was observed.
The relatively smooth and similar measurements at the two distances indicate a reasonably uniform source for the radiated energy, both by way of the lack discontinuities and from the lack of a 1/r2 behavior of the power readings.
The field from an infinite conducting plate does not fall off as a function of distance. If two opposing edges of the plate are brought together to form an infinitely long conducting line, the power falls of as 1/r, and further, that if the ends of the line are shrunk down to point, then the power falls off as 1/r2. This is illustrated in
The minor extrapolation of the curve to aircraft skin surface shows a source strength of −35 dBm. The actual source inside the aircraft is generating approximately +15 dBm, and thus, it appears that there is a 50 dB loss in coupling to the skin, which is a reasonable number. Based on the available data and this informal ad hoc measurement methodology, it is not unreasonable to assume that the aircraft is a combination finite line and, to a lesser degree, a finite curved surface emitter which would allow prediction of the behavior of other aircraft models and types.
These measurements make it clear that a broadband, digital communication system can be installed in the avionics bay of any aircraft and, without having to mount external antenna, communicate reliably with the terminal offices at operationally useful distances. Some experiments were also conducted on several different models of commercial aircraft to begin answering some of these tests involved placing a laptop within the avionics bay of different aircraft, closing up the aircraft and, using a second laptop, determine the distance away from the fuselage that the external computer could continue to communicate with the internal one. In general, it was found that this could be accomplished at a distance of 60 to 90 m with reasonable data rates. However, the coupling mechanism of the energy from one computer to the other through the aircraft's skin was not understood sufficiently to proceed with assertions that this was operationally feasible for a wide range of aircraft types and models. This concern generated the above data collection and analysis.
Based on the data collected and heuristic analysis, the energy is coupled from free space propagation into the skin of the aircraft which then re-radiates the energy after an attendant propagation and/or conduction loss. This loss, measured at any given point in the radiation pattern close to the aircraft skin, is typically on the order of 40 to 50 dB from the source power level.
In predicting the available RF power at any given operationally useful range, the aircraft can be viewed as a collection of line radiators. This is a conservative, but reasonable conclusion. A subsidiary conclusion is that the field will be fairly uniform in the forward hemisphere of the aircraft. This tentative conclusion is based on an aft placement of the RF source.
Many modifications and other embodiments of the invention will come to the mind of one skilled in the art having the benefit of the teachings presented in the foregoing descriptions and the associated drawings. Therefore, it is understood that the invention is not to be limited to the specific embodiments disclosed, and that modifications and embodiments are intended to be included within the scope of the appended claims.
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Kepler-186f orbits an M dwarf star in the constellation Cygnus. More importantly, it's the first confirmed Earth-size, potentially habitable planet elsewhere in the universe.
The new planet, known as Kepler-413b, has an extremely irregular orbit that seems to move up and down. It also has no surface to stand on.
First "space tourist" Dennis Tito asks agency to chip in with some new rockets and cash for a 2017 manned mission. NASA says thanks, but no thanks.
The question "Is anybody out there?" grows more tantalizing with the discovery of each new far-off planet. CBS Sunday Morning talks to scientists searching for clues.
The Antares launched smoothly from Virginia's Wallops Flight Facility and released a simulated cargo ship. It's slated to follow SpaceX's Falcon 9 as a commercial ISS resupply craft.
The agency's Kepler space telescope locates three planets -- in two new planetary systems -- that are the right distance from their suns to make them potentially life-supporting.
Space station astronauts opened up the newly arrived SpaceX cargo ship early Saturday, kicking off a busy few days of work to unload the commercial spacecraft.
The space telescope picks out two confirmed Earth-size planets in orbit around a star 1,000 light years away, the smallest extra-solar planets yet discovered.
In a long-awaited milestone, astronomers using a NASA space telescope have found a roughly Earth-size world, Kepler-22b, orbiting around a sun-like star where conditions may be favorable for life.
NASA's Kepler telescope has discovered a planet that orbits two suns, just like Luke Skywalker's homeworld of Tatooine.
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Beyond the shimmering night sky lies a vast realm that holds considerable opportunities for us. While space has frequently made headlines for its contributions to communication, navigation, weather forecasting, disaster management, discovery of new planetary bodies etc., the unravelling of its infinite secrets continues to inspire us. Most recently, the role of space in the manufacture of pharmaceutical drugs has caught widespread attention, sparking excitement amongst the scientific and medical community equally.
Last week, Varda, a California-based startup, celebrated the deployment of its first satellite – W-Series 1 in orbit. The launch marks a fascinating endeavour of a space-based pharmaceutical factory. The objective is to explore the production of pharmaceuticals in outer space’s unique environment, aiming to achieve mass production of products that cannot be produced on Earth or could be developed rapidly with enhanced quality in microgravity conditions. The manufacturing process in space considerably alters the physical variable, which remains constant in any Earth-based lab. Varda’s first mission will conduct research on the development of ‘Ritonavir’, a drug used to treat HIV. The satellite, or ‘factory’ as it is termed, is the size of a yoga ball and is expected to spend around a month in space before it returns to Earth.
There are numerous potential benefits of the initiative. At its core, the idea is that protein crystals formed in space could have superior structures and prove much more effective than their counterparts developed on Earth where their formation process could be adversely impacted by gravity. Hence, by capitalising on the advantages offered by microgravity in the orbits leading to absence of convection currents, or particle clumping, the scientist could analyse the structures of the protein crystals more effectively and design medications to perfectly bind to them, resulting in exceptionally precise drug manufacture. As per Varda, the initiative has the potential to enable improved bioavailability, ensure an extended shelf-life, new intellectual property, and allow novel routes of drug administration.
It is important to note that the manufacturing does not encompass the production of final products, such as tablets or capsules, which involve binding agents and other additives. Instead, it refers to developing the active ingredient for medicinal use. It is claimed that the leukaemia immunotherapy drug ‘Blincyto’, which usually has an astronomical price of USD 114.3 billion per kilogram, could be produced at a lesser cost in microgravity. Likewise, an earlier study revealed that a more stable version of the active ingredient ‘Pembrolizumab’, normally used in the cancer drug ‘Keytruda’, could also be produced in microgravity. Hence, patients suffering from critical illnesses could be able to afford vital medicines otherwise out of their reach.
Despite the substantial costs associated with space-related initiatives, there has been a remarkable surge in space expeditions in recent years. This is primarily due to the pioneering efforts of private companies like Rocket Lab and SpaceX, that have revolutionised the industry with their reusable rockets. By significantly reducing launch costs, these companies have empowered startups to leave their indelible footsteps in the realm of space exploration.
The price of launch per kilogram is considerably decreasing, and it is projected that with the start of starship by Space X, costs could further go down, making outer space the ideal place for manufacturing expensive products. Consequently, other private companies are also likely to join the venture. Different companies could also buy space in the ISS laboratory to conduct manufacturing experiments as required. Such collaborative efforts can lead to enhanced space research and development, driving further innovation.
Interestingly, the factory is already equipped to perform dual functions. Apart from manufacturing, Varda also entered into a collaboration with the U.S. Air Force, which would allow the USAF to utilise Varda’s reentry vehicle as a hypersonic testbed upon its return after a microgravity production/experiment. Varda has won a USD 60 million contract from the USAF that will enable revenue generation. Given that the reentry phase is going to be hypersonic in any case, the joint venture with USAF will serve as an added advantage.
Varda’s decision to venture into space manufacturing is poised to transform the pharmaceutical industry by transcending earthly limitations and entering the realm of stars; can significantly contribute to the healthcare sector by increasing the accessibility of essential medicines. This remarkable initiative, if successful, could also become a gateway for mass production of other materials that might be difficult to produce on Earth, spanning various industries. While the space factory is still in nascent stages, its technological breakthroughs have the power to transform not only our understanding of the universe but also our daily lives and the way we interact with the world.
Shaza Arif is a Research Assistant at the Centre for Aerospace & Security Studies (CASS), Islamabad, Pakistan. She can be reached at: firstname.lastname@example.org
Design Credit: Mysha Dua Salman
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The base is known for aircraft operations and for supporting over 3,000 personnel, as well as approximately 38 mission partners with 12,000 additional personnel. Aug 27, 2016 air force inn, macdill air force base. Prior to his current position, general tulley was the senior military assistant to the secretary of the air force, arlington, virginia. Deputy director of operations, j3, united states, central command, macdill air force base, florida. The fire at votels macdill air force base home started after a temporary power line was nailed to an outdoor pole while crews were repairing. President obama has nominated 36 air force colonels for promotion to brigadier general, defense secretary ash carter announced tuesday.
The id card and deers facility at macdill afb is located on tampa point blvd in bldg 411. Plant museum is 9 km from the hotel, while gadson park is 1. Thomas iii currently serves as the 11th commander of. Click here for macdill covid19 updates air force releases guidance on use of cloth face covers. General cornish entered the air force in 1990 as a distinguished graduate of the rotc program. Operations command ussocom headquartered at macdill air force base, fla. Macdill air force base locked down after shots fired near base.
Macdill air force base gets new commanders in key centcom. Former commander offers airmen wisdom, encourages excellence. Built in 1987, the venue was fully renovated in 2007. Two additional subunified commands are also headquartered at macdill afb. Curious that the 6th air mobility wing history office, which provided the photo, was unable to identify actor lovejoy from the movie production that was certainly a macdill highlight of the 1950s. Student, f4, replacement training unit, macdill air force base, florida 4. Lovejoy isin costumethe unidentifed 4star shown speaking to general frank armstrong in the photo at the top of page 90. In the 1 960s, it transitioned to a tactical air command installation briefly operating the f84 thunderstreak jet fighter. Increasing tensions in 1961 led to the activation of the u. February 20 july 2014, deputy director, operations j3, u. Jim slife is the commander, air force special operations. He has served as an instructor pilot, weapons officer, operational test pilot and operations officer, and has commanded at the squadron and wing. Special operations command, macdill air force base, fla. Dec 01, 2015 president obama has nominated 36 air force colonels for promotion to brigadier general, defense secretary ash carter announced tuesday.
It was established in 1983, taking over the previous responsibilities of the rapid deployment joint task force rdjtf. The gentleman standing next to him could be colonel young, the base commander. Air force inn, macdill air force base updated 2020. Howard was the bastion of us air power in central and south america. The official website for the macdill air force base. The united states central command uscentcom or centcom is one of the eleven unified combatant commands of the u.
Sep 26, 2011 this is another fine images of america booka close look at macdill air force base, from its establishment in 1939 as the great southeast air base to its present day role as a headquarters and home of a fleet of kc5s tankers. General votel lost lifetime of memories in macdill afb house fire. Macdill air force base, located in south tampa, was constructed as macdill field, a u. Joseph votel, moved across the base to a new job as. Army air forces, installation just prior to world war ii. Macdill air force base was named after colonel leslie macdill and was officially activated on april 16, 1941. Wright is the commander, 6th medical group, macdill air force base, florida. Mcf is an active united states air force base located approximately 4 miles 6. In its heyday, it was the center for counterdrug operations, military and humanitarian airlift. Wfla a fifth case of coronavirus has been confirmed at macdill air force base, according to colonel steven snelson of the 6th air refueling wing command team. Chief, national guard bureau leadership the national guard. Combined joint task force 180 and combined forces command afghanistan cfca.
Macdill air force base, located in south tampa, was constructed as macdill field just prior to world war ii. Gene kirkland is the commander, air force sustainment center, air force materiel command, headquartered at tinker air force base, oklahoma. We invite you to view our news, photos and videos, which. Education 1992 bachelor of arts, political science, duke university, durham, n. Macdill, fl weather conditions weather underground. The operation terminated when the joint combined task force closed into udorn, thailand, air force base at 0428 on the 21st of november 1970. He earned his wings at the euronato joint jet pilot training program at sheppard air force base, texas. Browse our best deals on 3 star hotels near macdill air force base below. Both commands are independent from each another and each is commanded by a respective 4 star general. Apply to adjunct instructor, senior corporate recruiter, family medicine physician and more. Air force, general jim allenbrigadier general jim allen and a briefing team out of an intelligence unit that was stationed at fort belvoir. Nc, washington, dc, fort gordon, ga, macdill air force base, fl, izmir, turkey, and.1542 22 1021 1436 1192 761 850 13 1065 1574 41 311 1675 1311 455 702 649 1003 895 54 1164 932 882 1176 768 788 334 805 987 268 237 368 1599 1209 1409 644 1492 724 32 705 1105 938 307
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Flying with your ex-military instructor you will learn how to fly like a fighter pilot in the T67 Firefly ex-military training aircraft. You start by flying a variety of aerobatic figures (taking the controls yourself!), starting off with gentle loops and rolls. Other maneuvers can include a loop, aileron roll, stall turn, barrel roll, Cuban 8, slow roll, vertical roll, Derry turn etc. You choose how far to push the boundaries and the flight is tailored to you; the trip is as wild, or mild, as you choose!
|Welcome||You will be kitted out in a high quality military flying suit.|
|Briefing||You will be taught how to fly aerobatics (yourself!), and be given a detailed safety brief.|
|At Aircraft||Cockpit Controls and Safety Brief.|
|Debrief||Debrief with your instructor, including amount of g pulled and flight certificate. Opportunity to purchase a video of your flight.|
|Duration||2-3 hours (start times are usually 10.30 or 13.00).
Flying time is around 35 minutes, and briefing around 30 minutes.
|Restrictions||Weight limit for the T67 Firefly is 17 stone.|
|Availability||Flights take place April-October inclusive, other than on Bank Holiday weekends and Sundays (subject to weather and airfield conditions).|
Please be sure to check supplier Terms and FAQ's before booking your experience
We make every effort to ensure that all information is correct, however, from time to time there may be changes that we have not been made aware of, please confirm details with the experience provider before booking.
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Sep 03, 2022
By Jeremy Logan
N.A.S.A.’s new moon rocket has sprung another fuel leak.
The problem cropped up at daybreak Saturday as the Florida launch team began loading nearly 1 million gallons of fuel into the 322-foot rocket.
Within minutes, a hydrogen fuel leak was detected around the engine section at the bottom of the rocket.
Launch controllers tried to plug Saturday’s leak by stopping and restarting the flow of super-cold liquid hydrogen.
But the leak persisted, and the launch director finally halted the countdown.
There’s no word yet on when NASA might try again.
After Tuesday, a two-week launch blackout period kicks in.
N.A.S.A. is trying to send an empty crew capsule around the moon, pushing it to the limit before astronauts climb aboard, with the hopes of a live-crew lunar landing in 2025.
Astronauts last walked on the moon 50 years ago.
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Kialo requires cookies to work correctly.
Discuss and Debate #Space
"The final frontier."
Should The Internet Be Regulated?
Should We Colonize Venus Before Mars?
Do Aliens Exist?
The coolest sci-fi weapon is...?
Should humanity establish colonies on Mars?
How can we make the colonization of the moon a community driven project?
We should build an international space elevator?
We should build Lagrange colonies before settling on mars
Should private property exist in outer space?
Should humans explore space?
Crowdfunding a rotating space habitats, is viable method of going for K2.
Is the electromagnetic waves velocity a variable?
Does Kialo really empower reason?
Earth Based Intergrated Launch System
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Helicopter pilot training with a global reputation.
From oil rig platforms off the icy coast of Norway to line operations deep in the Brazilian jungle, our name is known among helicopter pilots the world over.
As Hillsboro Aero Academy’s helicopter pilot training school in the USA, Hillsboro Heli Academy enjoys a global reputation among helicopter pilot education programs. Thousands of helicopter pilots from over 55 countries have chosen us to help them pursue their dream of flight.
Why do so many helicopter careers take off from our helipad?
Absolutely not! All it takes is dedication, commitment to study, and practice in the aircraft. Attending a helicopter flight school will help you learn the necessary skills required to fly a helicopter both through flight and ground instruction.
Our Helicopter Professional Pilot Program which includes the private pilot, instrument, commercial pilot and flight instructors courses is structured to take less than 15 months to complete if you are a full-time student on the flight schedule five times per week.
The FAA sets a minimum number of flight and ground hours that must be reached for each individual certificate or rating. Our courses ensure students meet those requirements before taking the FAA examination. We also structure our program to help students obtain 200 total flight hours to meet the SFAR 73 requirements to instruct in a Robinson R22 helicopter.
S-92 Captain for PHI
The training I received gave me a solid foundation of the basic knowledge and skills needed to be successful in my current position at PHI. Most importantly, though, I had so much fun! The community of Hillsboro students, instructors and staff is what makes it really work.
Hillsboro’s partnership with Portland Community College made it possible for Jon to work on his helicopter pilot education and college degree at the same time.
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I get so confused how mass works in space. I know these may sound like stupid questions but I've never had anyone answer them before. First if you're flying a spacecraft around in space. What role does mass play if you're weightles? For example why couldn't you hit the gas and indefinitely accelerate to however fast you wanted to go? I guess another question is in space what forces act on mass if there is no friction wind resistance or gravity? Is there a good link to a website that explores these questions?
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While airspace may be closed to all forms of human traffic, space is not, and these trans-atmospheric shuttles allow humanity to maintain a foothold in space by shuttling personnel and supplies back and forth. The creation of the Orbital Diver Corps and associated materials, equipment, and tactics has also given humanity a new edge against the BETA.
- A medium-sized flight-capable shuttle used as an escape craft, stored in the interior housing of the XG-70d Susanoo Unit 4. The shuttle is capable of both operation in space and in the atmosphere of Earth. Heat-resistant panels are used to line its underside to allow it to re-enter the atmosphere without aid, and its vertical stabilizers can be folded for easier storage in an Armored Capsule. Its size is roughly the same as that of the Space Shuttles used during humanity's exploration of space prior to the outbreak of the BETA War.
Hyper Surface Shuttle TransporterEdit
A large-scale trans-atmospheric shuttle, the HSST is built to shuttle supplies and people up to space in bulk. The craft are designed to be manned by a small crew, with generally a primary pilot and co-pilot; both pilots are trained to not only handle the craft but also to coordinate with their orbital diver compliment for drop operations.
Most commonly used for orbital drop operations, the HSST can carry a single set of Re-entry Shells up into space, with each shell holding a single TSF and pilot. During combat operations involving Orbital Divers, several HSSTs within a fleet may be armed with orbital bombardment munitions; these are usually AL warheads.
- The HSST is usually launched with the aid of booster rockets to get it up to the required altitude, although it has no problems re-entering the atmosphere and landing on its own power. It is also sometimes referred to as a 'Re-entry Destroyer'.
Large-scale long-distance colonization spaceships, design to transport the remainder of the human race to a distant star system as part of the Alternative V plan. Several dozen were built. They are able to traverse the multi-light-year journey using technology derived from G-Elements.
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Video: Russian Fighter, U.S. Navy Spy Plane in "Unsafe" Intercept
The crew of a U.S. Navy EP-3 surveillance aircraft reported Monday that a Russian fighter made a close, "unsafe" high speed pass directly in front of their plane as they conducted a mission over the Black Sea.
According to the aircrew, a Russian Su-27 fighter jet approached and made two passes - the first, a high speed pass directly in front of the EP-3, and the second, a close approach on the plane's starboard side. At the end of the second pass, the Russian fighter turned on its afterburner and banked away, creating turbulence and vibration for the EP-3. Overall, the encounter lasted about 25 minutes.
"While the Russian military is within its right to exercise within international airspace, this interaction was irresponsible," U.S. 6th Fleet wrote in a statement. "Unsafe actions increase the risk of miscalculation and potential for midair collisions."
The Russian embassy in Washington responded that the fighter was "preventing a violation of Russian airspace and followed all necessary safety procedures."
In a separate incident in January, a Russian Su-27 fighter flew within about five feet of a U.S. EP-3, according to the Navy. After that incident, the U.S. State Department accused Russia of "flagrantly violating existing agreements and international law."
In May, a Russian Su-27 intercepted a U.S. Navy P-8 surveillance plane over the Baltic, approaching to within about 20 feet.
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AVI-8 (pronounced "aviate") is a microbrand watch company that specializes in a range of affordable timepieces that honors aviation history. Most of the models are inspired by military aircraft and have names like Hawker Hurricane, Hawker Hunter, Hawker Harrier, and Lancaster Bomber.
In AVI-8's Own Words:
"Our collection of timepieces seeks to honor both the aircraft and the untold story of the airmen who have dedicated themselves both in and out of the cockpit to bring these incredible machines to life." -AVI8
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Passengers aboard Newark-bound United Flight 1997 received a frightening warning from their pilot: they would encounter "horrific" storms, including tornadoes.
The pilot's warning, which was broadcast over the plane's speakers, freaked out passengers so much that a flight attendant was forced to take the microphone to try to calm them down, passenger Pamela Kent told NJ.com.
The flight had already been delayed in Chicago for two hours on Tuesday (22 August) when the pilot made the unnerving announcement.
"He seemed angry," said Kent, who was traveling with her daughter Jessica. "He said, 'We're going to be flying through horrific storms, including tornadoes.'" If that was not enough to scare passengers, the pilot also asked them to "get to know your neighbours," Kent said.
She said the pilot warned the trip to New Jersey would be "very turbulent" before he walked into the cockpit and shut the door.
Flight attendants reportedly tried to assure passengers that the pilot did not mean it was unsafe to fly and that he was letting passengers know there would be more delays. According to NJ.com, there were tornado warnings in Warren County and in parts of Pennsylvania on Tuesday night.
The plane eventually left the gate, but as it prepared to taxi to the runway, the pilot got back on the intercom and told passengers the plane had a maintenance issue and had to return. Frustrated passengers told flight attendants they wanted to get off the plane.
By that point, the pilot and his crew had also "timed out," meaning they had worked their allotment of hours and a new crew would take over. At least 50 passengers, including Kent, decided to make alternate plans, NJ.com reported.
"It was a general feeling of being rattled," Kent said. "You want a pilot to have confidence. There was not that feeling."
The 5.54pm flight finally took off at 1.14am Wednesday (23 August) following a second deplaning. The flight landed in Newark at 3.58am, more than 6 1/2 hrs after it was originally scheduled to land.
United Airlines said it was looking into the incident. "We would never put our crew or our passengers in a situation where it was unsafe to fly," spokeswoman Natalie Noonan said. "The safety of the passengers and the crew is always our No. 1 priority."
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When Boeing bought Aurora Flight Sciences in 2017, the company was drawn to Aurora's work in the design and manufacture of advanced autonomous aerospace systems and technologies.
Aurora, which specializes in robotic aircraft for future aerospace vehicles, operates as an independent subsidiary, primarily benefiting from Boeing's resources, according to the company.
When it comes to futuristic, experimental aircraft, you don't have to look much further than Darpa X-planes, which literally stands for experimental planes.
In mid-January, Darpa selected Aurora Flight Sciences for Phase 2 of an active flow control X-plane. The idea is to create and eventually fly a demonstrator aircraft without external mechanical flight controls.
Conventional fixed-wing aircraft use flaps and tail rudders to move. Active flow control changes the shape of the wing to change the craft's aerodynamic flow.
By removing jointed surfaces that add weight and mechanical complexity to modern aircraft, active flow control will reduce drag and enable ultra-fast speeds. The X-plane will also have thicker wings for structural efficiency, increased fuel capacity and simplified high-lift systems.
The move into Phase 2 follows Aurora's successful completion of the preliminary design in Phase 1 of the CRANE (Control of Revolutionary Aircraft with Novel Effectors) program. In Phase 1, Aurora's engineers created a testbed aircraft that used active flow control to generate control forces in wind tunnel testing. In Phase 2, Aurora is charged with designing and developing flight software and controls.
If all goes according to plan, Darpa can initiate a Phase 3 option that will culminate in the flight of a 7,000-pound demonstrator. The X-plane will hopefully prove that active flow control can be used in a full-scale aircraft and be used for a controlled flight. In addition, the demonstrator X-plane will likely have modular wings, so Darpa or other partners could test various configurations. For example, BAE Systems and Lockheed-Martin are also involved in the CRANE program.
According to CRANE Program Manager Richard Wlezien, the modular wings and active flow control effectors give the X-plane the potential to live on as a national test asset long after the CRANE program is over.
Aurora Flight Sciences recently broke ground in an expansion project at its Bridgeport, West Virginia facility. The project will double the company's footprint at the North Central West Virginia Airport, adding nearly 50,000 square feet. The company currently has some 200 employees but plans to double the workforce by 2028, if not sooner.
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Boulder, CO, January 27, 2024 — Space Lab® has announced that the company has been selected to develop EcoMine™, a closed-loop bio-regenerative mining facility for the moon, through the NASA Small Business Innovation Research (SBIR) Ignite program. NASA’s plans to establish a sustained Lunar presence for scientific research, Mars mission preparation, and a thriving commercial Lunar economy require significant surface infrastructure. Lunar regolith, the loose rocks and dust on the moon’s surface, is rich in raw elements used in construction, like silicon, iron, titanium, and aluminum. The use of these “in situ resources” enables an economical and sustainable approach to building structures on the moon, such as communication towers or landing pads. Regolith also provides an alternative source of rare Earth minerals for terrestrial use.
The Space Lab® EcoMine™ offers an environmentally safe and more profitable way to obtain building materials needed for Lunar development. By combining bioleaching and photosynthesis to recover minerals and continuously recycle air and nutrients, EcoMine™ consumes less energy and is less massive than chemical mining solutions. While traditional mining approaches would require large amounts of chemicals to be transported to the facility from Earth, a circular bioprocessing facility regenerates them on site, which could significantly reduce operating costs. Bioleaching is more efficient at extracting minerals from low-grade ore than abiotic methods, reducing the amount of raw material and energy, required for processing. Principal Investigator Christine Escobar stated, “EcoMine™ is a major step towards a viable, sustainable Lunar economy and a blueprint for more environmentally friendly mineral mining on Earth.” In Phase I, Space Lab will focus early-stage development on proof-of-concept prototypes to demonstrate facility capabilities. With future funding, Space Lab plans to demonstrate an EcoMine™ pilot plant on the moon.
Space Lab is a small business in Boulder, CO, that researches and develops technology for Earth-independent space habitation and exploration. Escobar stated, “We create tools and resources that people need to live and work in space sustainably, so that they can explore further and stay longer. We consider ourselves space habitat outfitters, creating sustainable solutions for humanity’s greatest journey.”
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X’Air V2(2), G-CBTY
During climb-out following a touch-and-go the engine stopped abruptly and a forced landing was carried out. Both occupants exited the aircraft without difficulty. The engine, a Simonini Victor 2 two stroke, twin cylinder, twin ignition, water-cooled engine, was examined and two burn holes were observed in the side wall of the rear cylinder head. The plating on the top end of the inner walls of both cylinders was cracked and partially detached in places. Metallurgical examination of the engine bearings revealed long term corrosion within the roller bearing which had occurred whilst the engine was stationary. It was considered that the engine failure was caused by the loss of coolant to the engine allowing hot gases to burn through the cylinder casing. The accumulation of liquid in the crankcase had probably resulted from a leak past one or both of the cylinder head elastomeric seals. The engine had completed a total of 6 hours 45 minutes since 2003 at the time of the engine failure.
G-CBTY-5-05.pdf (126.75 kb)
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World asteroid day 30, June 2022 : Why do we celebrate asteroid Day?
Asteroid, also called minor planet or planetoid, any of a host of small bodies, about 1,000 km (600 miles) or less in diameter, that orbit the Sun primarily between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter in a nearly flat ring called the asteroid belt.
International Asteroid Day aims to raise public awareness about the asteroid impact hazard and to inform the public about the crisis communication actions to be taken at the global level in case of a credible near-Earth object threat.
Asteroid Day was co-founded by astrophysicist and famed musician Dr Brian May of the rock group Queen, Apollo 9 astronaut Rusty Schweickart, filmmaker Grig Richters, and B612 Foundation President Danica Remy, to educate the public about the importance of asteroids –their role in the formation of our solar system, their impact in space resources and the importance of defending our planet from future impacts. Asteroid Day is observed annually on 30 June to mark the date of Earth’s largest asteroid impact in recorded history, the Siberia Tunguska event.
In 2016, with the leadership of the Association of Space Explorers (ASE), the United Nations declared 30 June as International Asteroid Day in order to “observe each year at the international level the anniversary of the Tunguska impact over Siberia, Russian Federation, on 30 June 1908, and to raise public awareness about the asteroid impact hazard.”
The holiday is often celebrated with activities like lectures, discussions, and concerts. Hosting your own could be a great benefit to your community.
Asteroids are numbered in order of their discovery and many have been named. For example, the first asteroid discovered is 1 Ceres, the second is 2 Pallas, etc. More than 400,000 asteroids have been discovered in the main asteroid belt.
The 3 broad composition classes of asteroids are C-, S-, and M-types.
1. The C-type (chondrite) asteroids are most common. They probably consist of clay and silicate rocks, and are dark in appearance.
2. The S-types ("stony") are made up of silicate materials and nickel-iron.
3. The M-types are metallic (nickel-iron).
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11 Iconic Historical Evolutions of Aircraft Carriers
The aircraft carrier today is a huge war machine used by navies to deploy entire fleets of aircraft remotely, far away from their country of origin.
The biggest aircraft carrier today can transport and launch more than 75 aircraft by sea. But did you know about the aircraft carrier's humble predecessor, the balloon barge?
What we've grown accustomed to seeing today in the news, in movies, and in real life is the result of an evolution that's taken place over more than a hundred years thanks to some extremely talented engineers.
Here are some of the biggest steps in the evolution of the aircraft carrier, or supercarrier, as we know it today.
1. 19th century Balloon Carriers
The aircraft carrier's precursor, the humble balloon barge, was typically utilized in order to anchor hot air balloons so as to get the best view of a surrounding area.
Balloon carriers were typically floating bargers that used a tether to stay attached to a balloon.
A tug boat would take the barge and the balloon downriver.
They date back to the 19th century and were soon superseded by the seaplane carriers that came in WWI.
Despite being used mainly to see the lay of the land, the Austrian navy did attempt to use hot air balloons to drop bombs on Venice in 1849.
During the American Civil War, the United States used balloons to observe the Confederate forces.
A group of prominent aeronauts of the time served as part of the Union Army balloon corps at the time.
2. La Foudre, the first seaplane carrier
The French ship La Foudre was the first seaplane carrier in history. Unlike aircraft carriers of today, rather than having a runway on top of the ship, it simply stored aircraft in its hull and used cranes to lower them onto the sea so they could take off and land from the water.
La Foudre was commissioned in 1896 but was then modified to be a seaplane carrier in 1911, shortly after the invention of the seaplane in 1910.
The first plane La Foudre carried was the float-equipped Canard Voisin seaplane, which was predominantly used for reconnaissance missions and observation.
3. Eugene Ely makes the first carrier landing on USS Pensylvania
Eugene Burton Ely is widely known as the father of naval aviation. The picture below shows one of his many attempts to take off from a warship — in the image he is attempting to take off from the USS Birmingham in 1910.
Ultimately, a consummate daredevil, Ely became the first person in history to land an aircraft on a warship, the USS Pensylvania.
On January 18, 1911, Ely flew from the Tanforan Racetrack in San Bruno, California, and landed on the USS Pennsylvania.
On November 12, 2010, in order to commemorate the 100th anniversary of Ely's flight, Naval Commander Bob Coolbaugh took off from the runway of the NAS Norfolk in a purposefully built replica of Ely's Curtiss aircraft.
4. HMS Argus, the first flat-top aircraft carrier
As a sign of how incredibly quickly war technology advances, only 8 years after Eugene Ely's warship landing, Britain's HMW Argus became the first example of a flat-topped aircraft carrier specially modified to allow aircraft to take off and land on top of it.
Used as an aircraft carrier in World War II, the Royal Navy's HMS Argus was used to escort planes like the Spitfire, the Hawker Hurricane, and the Blackburn Skua.
4. Hōshō: the first commissioned aircraft carrier
While many warships were modified into becoming seaplane carriers or aircraft carriers before 1920, Japan's Hōshō was the first warship that was specifically commissioned and built as an aircraft carrier.
During World War II, Hōshō was present during the Battle of Midway in 1942. The aircraft carrier, however, was mainly used for training on Japanese home waters. Hōshō's relatively small size meant that it wasn't particularly effective in combat situations.
After WWII, the Japanese aircraft carrier was used to help repatriate some 40,000 Japanese soldiers and civilians from overseas.
5. World War II carriers
Jet-powered airplanes started to emerge towards the end of WWII, leading to innovations in the design of aircraft carriers. As per Nocgms, some aircraft carriers started to use angled landing strips at this time.
Angled landing strips would lift approximately 9 ft off of the carrier's main axis, allowing for a safer landing. If a pilot were to come in too quickly, they could easily take off again and come back around thanks to the elevation — more on this in number 7.
Some of the most notable aircraft carriers of WWII include the USS Enterprise, the United States' most decorated warship during the war, the HMS Ark Royal, and Germany's Bismarck battleship.
6. The first jet plane takes off from carrier HMS Ocean
34 years after Eugene Ely's warship aircraft landing in 1911, Eric Brown, from the British Royal Navy, became the first person to take off and land on an aircraft carrier in a jet aircraft.
On December 3, 1945, Brown flew a de Havilland Sea Vampire to the HMS Ocean, where he landed and then took off again.
Eric Brown is the most decorated pilot in the history of the Royal Navy. As a test pilot, he also holds the world record for the most types of aircraft flown, at 487.
7. The ski-jump ramp takeoff innovation
Perhaps the earliest use of the ski-jump takeoff ramp was seen during WWII when a ramp was temporarily installed on the end of the flight deck of the HMS Furious. The makeshift contraption was added to help the bomb-heavy Fairey Barracudas take off.
The ski-jump ramp now helps heavy aircraft to take off on runways that would otherwise be too short. An aircraft typically needs a long runway to achieve flight speed and make lift more than gravity.
On a short runway, an aircraft will lose altitude shortly after takeoff and possibly fall into the sea. A ski-jump ramp, however, lets the aircraft leave the ground at a slight upward angle, converting its forward motion into a positive rate of climb.
Even traveling at an inadequate speed to generate lift at the time of takeoff, the extra elevation gives the aircraft extra time to accelerate and generate enough lift.
8. Steam catapult takeoffs
On July 31, 1912, Theodore Gordon Ellyson became the first pilot to be launched from a U.S. Navy catapult system. Since then, the catapult takeoff has been honed and improved throughout the years and is used on modern aircraft carriers today.
Shortly after WWII, the Royal Navy started developing the steam-powered catapult takeoff, a method that helps planes take off at a high velocity, they wouldn't be able to achieve only using their engines.
The steam-powered catapult holds an aircraft in place as steam pressure builds up. It then breaks, freeing a piston that shoots the aircraft down the flight deck at high speed.
Steam-powered catapults allow jet aircraft to gain enough speed to take off within about two to four seconds, even if they have lost one engine.
9. Helicopter carriers
In the 1950s, the invention of the helicopter ushered in the invention of a new type of aircraft carrier, the helicopter carrier. These were typically smaller as they only needed space for vertical takeoffs.
The USS Iwo Jima, pictured above was used by the U.S. Navy during the Vietnam War to transport helicopters, tanker trucks, and vehicles. In 1970, it was used as part of Task Force 130, which recovered the Apollo 13 command module from the sea.
10. The Nuclear Age and Supercarriers
After WWII, the nuclear age brought on further innovations in aircraft carriers. Nuclear reactors were installed in warships, such as the USS Enterprise aircraft carrier.
These reactors allow ships to operate for a much longer period than they were previously capable of, meaning that large scale missions far from home became more feasible.
That innovation was one of the main innovations that brought us to the modern aircraft carrier, which is unofficially designated as the "supercarrier." The Nimitz Class carriers of the U.S. Navy are some of the biggest aircraft carriers today.
Nimitz Class ships can carry 60 aircraft and tower 20 stories above sea level. They are powered by two nuclear reactors, meaning they can reach a top speed of 30 kt.
Other notable modern-day aircraft carriers are the Royal Navy's Queen Elizabeth Class, China's Liaoning (16), and the Russian Navy's Admiral Kuznetsov, which is the fifth-largest aircraft carrier in the world.
Supercarriers use state of the art technology, including unmanned drones, 3D air-search radar, and Sea Sparrow missiles.
11. The world's largest aircraft carrier today, the USS Gerald R. Ford
The largest aircraft carrier in the world is the USS Gerald R. Ford of the United States Navy. Expected to be fully operational as of 2022, the USS Gerald R. Ford is equipped with new electromagnetic aircraft launch systems and has a 78m-wide flight deck.
It can carry over 75 aircraft and 4,539 personnel. The USS Gerald R. Ford is powered by two A1B nuclear reactors and it will be the most state-of-the-art aircraft carrier in existence when it is operational.
Quite the change when compared to balloon barge carriers of a little over a hundred years ago.
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Excluding NATO-member Turkey from the trillion-dollar F-35 fighter jet program would be challenging due to Ankara’s integral role in the stealthy jet’s production process, but not impossible, U.S. sources familiar with the situation said, ONA reports citing Reuters.
Last week international media reported that the United States could soon freeze preparations for delivering F-35 fighter jets to Turkey, a move that would widen the rift between Ankara and Washington, the latest disagreement in a years-long standoff.
At the heart of the matter lies Turkish President Tayyip Erdogan’s commitment to buy a Russian air defense system that the United States says would compromise the security of F-35 aircraft, which is built by Lockheed Martin Corp.
The United States and other NATO allies who own F-35 fighter jets fear the radar on the Russian S-400 missile system will learn how to spot and track the F-35, making it less able to evade Russian weapons in the future.
The United States has offered Turkey the more expensive, Patriot anti-missile system at a discount that expires at the end of March, but on the condition that Ankara drop its plans to buy the S-400.
So far Ankara has not shown any willingness to reverse the S-400 purchase, forcing the United States to explore a future for the F-35 program without Turkey, which makes parts of the fuselage, landing gear and cockpit displays.
Two U.S. sources familiar with the F-35’s intricate, worldwide production process and U.S. thinking on the issue say Turkey can be replaced. Officials with the Pentagon and the Turkish embassy declined to comment.
“There are about 800 parts that Turkey makes for the F-35, and of them, very few are sole source,” said a person with direct knowledge of the U.S. position, explaining that single source parts from Turkey can be replaced by contractors who had previously bid to make them.
“Turkey is not too big to fail,” the person said.
Replacing or finding substitutes for the Turkish components would slow production for a three-month period at the Lockheed Martin facility that builds the jets, the person said.
Lockheed declined to comment.
Turkish Foreign Minister Mevlut Cavusoglu in December said Ankara plays a significant role in the production of the trillion-dollar jet and therefore removing it from the program would not be easy.
But sources say several components of the F-35 made in Turkey, can be easily replaced. For example, the center fuselage produced in Ankara, could be made by Northrop Grumman Corp , which already makes them in California.
In the mean time, more Turkish pilots are set to begin training at U.S. air force bases, joining the Turkish pilots already there and Ankara still hopes to take delivery of two aircraft in November.
Acting U.S. Defense Secretary Patrick Shanahan said on Tuesday he wants Turkey to remain in the F-35 fighter jet program, but added that Ankara needed to buy the Patriot missile defense system.
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Microbolometers are not directly analogous to cameras.
While they might look and function similarly in many ways, it's important to remember that the major difference between cameras and micrometers is that cameras are not built to make precise amplitude measurements. Microbolometers are. Cameras are primarily intended to demonstrate color and contrast. Microbolometers are intended to demonstrate contrast and absolute intensity. As a result, microbolimeters tend to be orders of magnitude lower resolution than visual spectrum cameras.
Chose your aircraft and sensor combination wisely
Because of the cost and complexity associated with conducting thermography operations, there are only a few solutions available from UAV hardware OEMs that are designed to "plug and play". If you choose to fly with 3rd party hardware, always make sure that you're within your aircraft's weight and balance limitations, and your local aviation regulations.
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Aerospace, Aviation & Defence jobs in Basingstoke
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A leader in Aerospace sensor equipment are seeking a Test Engineer to join their team due to growth within the business. The Test Engineer will pla...
The individual needs to have an understanding of manufacturers part numbering, some knowledge of Reach would be beneficial, but not necessarily req...
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The name of this asteroid is 2015 RN35. The European Space Agency (ESA) has also reported that the asteroid will be visible in Europe until December 19. This meteor body from 60 to 140 meters in diameter will not be easy to see with the naked eye because it is not very bright. The agency says it is possible to see it with the aid of a 30cm or larger telescope. According to NASA, it runs at a speed of 21,276 kilometers per hour. There is not much information available about Asteroid 2015 RN35. It was closest to Earth on December 15. The terrifying thing was that it had come so close to Earth that the distance between the Moon and the Earth is doubled. Now it is advancing but according to the agency it can be seen until December 19.
Like the planets of the solar system, meteorites also revolve continuously around the sun. Many times, due to the gravitational force of the planets, they rotate towards any planet thus increasing their chances of colliding with the planet, but so far there is not much chance of some big meteor hitting the earth. . These meteorites are rocky remains left over from the early formation of our Solar System, some 4.6 billion years ago. So far, scientists have been able to detect 11 lakh 13,527 asteroids.
Most asteroids are found in a main asteroid belt, which lies between Mars and Jupiter. Its size can be from 10 meters to 530 kilometers. The total mass of all asteroids discovered so far is less than that of Earth’s Moon.
For the latest tech news, smartphone reviews, and exclusive deals on popular mobile phones, download the Gadgets 360 Android app and follow us on Google News.
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Companies like Surf Air and FLITE Air Taxi can charge less than big-name competitors, in part, because they use different planes — like, for example, single-prop turbo planes — that cost less to operate because they use less fuel than larger jets. “The operational cost can be a fraction of other planes,” says Justin Hart, vice president of Surf Air memberships.
With its dedication to helping clients buy and sell aircraft, The Private Jet Company (TPJC) realizes that clients sometimes need financing in order to complete a timely transaction. To meet these customer needs, TPJC can assist and at times provide financing to help expedite a private aircraft purchase. Financing the purchases of private aircraft is similar to mortgage or automobile loans, though the details of the agreements are much more complex, and the aircraft purchase price usually much greater than a home or car. TPJC’s in-house financing specialists can assist with all aspects of transaction financing, but the basic transaction process of a private jet aircraft acquisition is often as follows:
Finance leasing, also known as "capital leasing", is a longer-term arrangement in which the operator comes closer to effectively "owning" the aircraft. It involves a more complicated transaction in which a lessor, often a special purpose company (SPC) or partnership, purchases the aircraft through a combination of debt and equity financing, and then leases it to the operator. The operator may have the option to purchase the aircraft at the expiration of the lease, or may automatically receive the aircraft at the expiration of the lease.
Perhaps most important for many business professionals, however, are the freedom and security that only private jets can offer. A private jet is a productivity multiplier, allowing you and your company to be more competitive, nimbler, and more successful, by optimizing your time, flexibility, and efficiency. In today's ever-competitive global marketplace, a private jet enables direct, face-to-face contact with clients, customers, and personnel, to a degree not otherwise possible.
Meredith Broder, an adviser with the Villanova, Pa., travel company Avenue Two Travel, said that empty leg flights have changed the private jet game. “Rather than have the plane fly empty, air companies or private jet brokers try to sell that route at a discount,” she said. “This strategy helps with fuel costs and puts private jet flying within reach to people who wouldn’t normally be able to afford this luxury and convenience.”
Private charter flights offer a range of advantages for busy professionals, including time-efficiency. From quicker check-ins to faster transit times, private jet hire is the perfect way to fulfil multiple meetings in different cities, carry out several site visits in one day or simply have more of an opportunity to remain productive while travelling.
No matter what company you're flying with, be sure to ask if there two pilots or one. (Though two pilots are standard on commercial flights, regulations vary for private planes of all sizes.) It also helps to ask if the operator owns the plane—typically, companies that own their planes offer better service. Never forget to ask about daily minimums and taxi fees. "If the hourly rate is $9,000 and you have a single 40-minute flight, you might assume you are going to pay $6,000," says Doug Gollan, creator of PrivateJetCardComparisons.com. "But if your provider has a daily minimum of 1.5 hours, you are going to actually be charged $13,500, plus taxi time, which in my comparisons I have found varies between being included and up to 12 minutes per segment."
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Traveling to another Earth-like world just got a lot easier. It turns out that there may be many other dirt-and-water planets lurking at the edges of our solar system in places like the Oort Cloud. These planets, which could be roughly the size of our own, would contain all the elements we need for life. They're just sitting in a cold, dimly-lit part of the solar system, waiting to be defrosted and colonized. Yesterday, NASA scientists announced that this changes the prognosis for nearby livable planets.
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Astronaut Mark Kelly, STS-121 pilot, dons a training spacesuit at Johnson Space Center in Houston. / NASA
Discovery pilot Mark Kelly uses climbing gear to simulate rappelling from a troubled shuttle in a training session in the Space Vehicle Mockup Facility at the Johnson Space Center in Houston. / NASA
Birthplace: Orange, N.J.
Family: Two daughters
Education: B.S., marine engineering and marine transportation, U.S. Merchant Marine Academy, 1986; M.S., aeronautical engineering, U.S. Naval Postgraduate School, 1994
Military experience: Navy commander; combat and test pilot
Previous missions: Pilot on STS-108 to the International Space Station in 2001
Hobbies: Cycling, golf and lifting weights
Cool fact: Flew 39 combat missions in Operation Desert Storm.
Role on the mission: Pilot; spacewalk coordinator
HOUSTON — Despite the risk, despite the fact that "it's like flying a Coke machine," combat and test pilot Mark Kelly is ready to take Discovery into orbit.
Flying a ship 114 times isn't enough to figure out what the real risk is, he said. If the shuttle program were instead a test program for an airplane, that number would be tiny.
"To really quantify a risk in a vehicle, you actually don't need a lot of flights," Kelly said. "You need a lot of failures. Hopefully we won't have any more failures, but we've only had two, so it's hard to get your hands around what the real risk of flying the space shuttle is."
Kelly also was the pilot on a flight to the International Space Station in 2001. This mission will be a lot busier.
"I think it's going to be a challenge for us to get all this stuff done," he said.
He's focused on his work, but sometimes his dry humor peeks through.
"Steph, I bet you're an only child," he told crewmate Stephanie Wilson one day.
She got nervous, he said, asking him: "How do you know that? Do I act like one?"
"I just read it in her bio," Kelly said with a little grin.
A Navy commander, he flew 39 combat missions in Operation Desert Storm in 1991.
"That's an experience I'll never forget," he said. "It's got its exciting points about it, just like flying in space does at times."
His brother, Scott, is a Navy pilot, too -- and an astronaut -- and Mark's twin.
"We didn't really have a rivalry in the traditional sense, but from the time we were born until we were about 15 years old, we used to beat each other up every day," Mark Kelly said.
The fights ended about the time they hit ninth grade, and they haven't fought since.
"At least we don't admit it," Mark said.
They are both competitive people, Scott said in a NASA interview, but not with each other.
"We certainly encourage each other to do our best, but if one person is better at certain things than others, it's really not a big deal to us," he said.
If their parents had to describe the difference between them, it would be "I was born first, and I'm smarter," Mark joked.
On this flight, he's taking up small items for his parents, girlfriend and two daughters, mostly jewelry. And music, including U2, on an iPod. He also likes Aerosmith.
His girls understand the risk he faces; they're good friends with Iain Clark, whose mother, Laurel, was lost aboard Columbia. He has reassured them that Discovery won't have the same issues, and they're looking forward to seeing the launch in Florida.
"We can't just stop exploring because we've seen everything on Earth, so it's time to move out and go back to the moon and go on to Mars," Kelly said.
Though he knows what the risk entails, "there's this huge benefit for the country. . . . I'm completely comfortable going out there on launch day."
Contact Kridler at 242-3633 or firstname.lastname@example.org.
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Eudora resident Tom Taylor worked as a Ford mechanic in Lawrence until he realized the sky was the limit literally.
Taylor, 29, left his steady job at Laird Noller Ford in 1997 and began chasing his dream of becoming a pilot for a major airline one year later. He graduated from the Kansas State University-Salina Aviation Science program in May and is employed as a co-pilot on an Air Transport Regional, ATR, for the St. Louis based TransWorld Express Airlines.
Transworld Express travels to 12 different destinations, including Springfield, Mo., and Madison, Wis. Travelers often use TWE as a means of getting from a smaller airport to a larger one where they catch a TWA flight.
"Flying is a lot better than working on a car," Taylor said. "It is a neat deal and it is pretty cool to get paid for flying. It seems like you learn every time you fly."
Taylor received his commercial license two years ago after flying for completing 250 hours of flight training, his instrument rating and his flight instructor rating at K-State-Salina. During his final year at the school, Taylor instructed other pilots and also met several well-known KSU figures. He chose to attend K-State-Salina because of its strong reputation and the fact that it has the state's only aviation program.
"The aviation program ties in with the football and basketball programs," Taylor said. "We flew KSU President Jon Wefald, Bill Snyder and Tom Asbury around."
Taylor said he feels fortunate to be able to serve as the co-pilot on a plane like the ATR.
"The ATR is a really nice flying plane with top-of-the-line instrumentation," Taylor said. "It is a pretty sophisticated airplane which makes it easier to fly."
As a student, Taylor did a three-month internship with Southwest Airlines and learned a lot about commercial flying. Someday, he hopes to be a pilot for the Texas based airline.
"Southwest Airlines has been in business for 30 years and never laid anyone off," Taylor said. "No other airline can say that."
Flying for an airline has its privileges for Taylor. When he wants to take a vacation, he can fly anywhere for free while his wife of two years, Kim, only has to pay $50 for a ticket.
A 1990 graduate of Eudora High School, Taylor flies small airplanes when he is not piloting the ATR for Transworld Express. He enjoys going to the New Century Airport in Gardner where he rents a plane and flies around for an hour at a time. Taylor uses some of his down time to go fishing at Clinton Lake near Lawrence, but he speeds up for his expensive and fast-paced hobby of drag racing at Topeka's Heartland Park. Taylor, who races in the pro class series, along with long time friend and fellow Eudoran Kevin Miller, said he hopes to race his 1979 Nova a little more now that he is out of college.
"The speed thing is a lot of fun with the adrenaline rush like a roller coaster or flying," Taylor said. "Racing is a lot of fun but I haven't done it enough lately."
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Red Planet Day is annually observed on November 28 to mark the launch of Mariner 4, the first aircraft to land on Mars in 1964. Scientists explain that Mars, also known as the Red Planet, is cold and a sandy desert. It is the fourth planet from the sun. Mars is approximately 227,936,637 kilometres (141 million miles) from the sun and from Earth, and it would take 300 days (about eight months) to reach it.
The Mariner 4 spacecraft was designed to collect data enabling planetary exploration and scientific observations of Mars. The spacecraft landed in 1964 and departed from the red planet a year later, on July 14, 1965. The spacecraft was deployed to Mars to aid in planetary exploration and near-term scientific investigations.
Here are some Mars-related FAQs
1) Is Mars still alive?
Mars, aka Red Planet, is not alive. The planet died four billion years ago when its core stopped functioning, its magnetic field weakened, and its auto sphere was eroded.
2) Why is Mars called the Red Planet?
Mars is known as the Red Planet because its surface is coated in rusty red soil, rock and dust formed of iron oxide.
3) How long is the day on Mars?
An entire day on Mars lasts 24 hours and 37 minutes.
4) Is it true that Mars has two moons?
Yes, the Red Planet has two moons, called Deimos and Phobos. They are named after the two horses that pull the chariot of the Roman god of war, Mars. They could be asteroids trapped by Mars' gravity, according to experts.
5) Mars is what kind of planet?
Mars is a terrestrial or stony (rocky) planet.
6) What differentiates Mars from Earth?
Mars is further from the sun and smaller than Earth, and it does not appear to be livable by life.
7) Is there life on Mars?
On Mars, there is no sign of life. However, it is the planet with the finest conditions for life, and experts believe there is potential for life under Mars' surface.
8) What is the most unanswered question about Mars?
Now we know that Mars was a habitable planet in the past; however, the most critical unanswered question about Mars is whether it ever housed life.
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Blast off into the universe with these out-of-this-world books! Featuring astronauts, asteroids, planets, spaceships, stars, comets and so much more, see below for the best space books for kids, ordered by target age. Plus, you can also find a post all about our best space books for 7-year-olds right here on our blog as well.
DK | 4+
Introduce your kids to the women who helped pioneer space travel and exploration. The amazing space heroes featured in this book include Mae Jamison, the first African American woman in space and Margaret Hamilton who created computer software for the Apollo mission. The stories of these women are told through photographs of the LEGO Women of NASA collection.
Emily Bone | 5+
Young readers can discover the secrets and mysteries of the universe with this exciting book. It features a helpful glossary to explain unfamiliar words and a list of websites to visit for more information. It's perfect for helping with homework - or for simply marvelling at!
Fiona Watt | 5+
This space-tacular sticker book provides a light-hearted look at space travel, with scenes depicting the vastness of space, the inside of a space station and the surface of the moon. It contains hundreds of brilliant stickers, including planets, stars, asteroids, astronauts, rovers and much more.
Rob Lloyd Jones | 5+
This fantastically fun book is packed with information about space and the amazing things that float through it, including stars, moons, comets and the planets of our solar system. Each spread features a cosmic colour illustration and lots of flaps to lift which reveal what's happening in every scene. Discover what's going on inside the International Space Station, how astronauts visited the Moon and what they did there, and the history of astronomy, from Galileo to the Hubble Space Telescope.
Cornelia Li | 5+
This book is a great way to get children familiar with topics surrounding space. They can follow an astronaut and her dog through the universe and learn about planets, asteroids and the sun along the way. Plus, to make this even more exciting, it comes with a glow-in-the-dark poster that young space enthusiasts can hand in their room.
Raman Prinja | 6+
Laid out in a simple magazine style, this fact-filled read is a must for kids who love space. There are eye-opening photographs, fascinating facts and top 10 lists on a range of space topics from moons to black holes.
Christoph Englert | 7+
Aspiring astronauts will be mesmerised by this brilliant book. Blast off into our local solar system and galaxies far, far away as you discover the science behind stars, planets, meteors and comets. This book also includes a detailed look at the history of the universe.
Lonely Planet Kids | 8+
In this enthralling book, kids will find everything they need to know to travel through space, including what life is like in zero gravity, how to find their way around the solar system, and the all-important question of how to pee in a spacesuit! Unique illustrations and fascinating facts take kids to the centre of the action, and more than 300 spectacular photos reveal what the universe is really like.
Andrew Langley | 9+
Explore the amazing life of astronaut Chris Hadfield in this unique space book. From his early days to the incredible six months he spent in space, this book tells the story of a hugely influential individual. This book also explains what the International Space Centre is and what it's used for and how it has become a temporary home for astronauts. If your child is considering a career in space, this book will truly help them achieve their goals.
DK | 9+
Discover a wide range of space subjects in this cosmological compendium, perfect for aspiring astronomers and astronauts. Discover what space is like, take a whirl around the sun and explore the moon and stars. Featuring exclusive interviews, spectacular pictures, eyewitness accounts, mind-boggling facts and so much more, young scientists will be engrossed by this detailed look into outer space.
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I've flown a similar aircraft, the Boeing 707, where 7,000 lbs of fuel meant it was time to land.
With that much fuel, the captain delayed leaving the holding pattern several times, despite very polite warnings from the crew that the fuel was running low. He asked for fuel reports and got them. The crew's warnings about fuel were delivered calmly and usually acknowledged. The captain finally agreed to begin the approach 48 minutes after entering the holding pattern, with only 3,000 lbs of fuel indicated on the gauges.
Once on final approach they started flaming out engines. The airplane impacted six miles southeast of the airport. There was no fire on impact and the airplane was evacuated in 2 minutes. Eight passengers died along with a flight attendant and the flight engineer. The gear was found to be fully extended and locked.
The NTSB blamed the captain for not paying enough attention to the fuel and the flight crew for not communicating their concerns adequately to the captain. United Airlines instituted the industry's first Crew Resource Management program a little more than a year later in 1980. Six years later I was trained by United Airline to fly the Boeing 747 for the United States Air Force. Their CRM course was a mandatory part of their 747's Captain's course. It has changed everything about the way I fly.
Everything here is from the references shown below, with a few comments in an alternate color.
Figure: Flight track, from NTSB Report, Figure 1
[NTSB AAR-79-7, ¶1.1]
Contacting the company about a maintenance malfunction is one of those steps in the 14 CFR 121 world that cuts two ways: it is a distraction but it does avail the crew of a much deeper bench of experience and knowledge. But with a three person flightcrew, this step could have been accomplished earlier.
While there were a lot of obvious warning signs being ignored so far this one is worth noting. In a four engine airplane each fuel flow meter can be thought of as a "15 minute consumption check." That is, whatever fuel flow you see on one of the four fuel flow meters indicates how much gas the airplane will consume in 15 minutes. Each of their engines was probably indicating around 7,000 PPH at this point and that's all the gas they had. So assuming the gauges were completely accurate, they didn't have enough gas to fly from 1744 to "about five minutes past the hour."
This was an unnecessary call that (1) may have preoccupied the flight engineer and (2) should have alerted ground personnel that the flightcrew was ignoring a critical fuel state.
According to the company's maintenance manual, these gauges were accurate ± 400 pounds, but it is unknown if the crew had this knowledge. They should have been alarmed, however, because it is doubtful any of them had seen so little fuel on a DC-8 before. Had the first officer or flight engineer had this revelation and at this point brought the captain's focus back to where it needed to be, they might have made it back to the runway.
[NTSB AAR-79-7, ¶1.1] Throughout the landing delay, flight 173 remained at 5,000 ft with landing gear down and flaps set at 15°. Under these conditions, the Safety Board estimated that the flight would have been burning fuel at the rate of about 13,209 lbs per hour--220 lbs per min. At the beginning of the landing delay, there were about 13,332 lbs of fuel on board.
[NTSB AAR-79-7, ¶1.16]
|Sum of Indicators||Totalizer|
|Analysis Method||High Error||Low Error||High Error||Low Error|
|Worst-Case Error (lbs)||2,283 High||1,482 Low||3,961 High||3,606 Low|
|Root-Square-Sum Error (lbs)||828 High||28 Low||1,312 High||957 Low|
|Probable Error (lbs)||685 High||185 Low||1,239 High||885 Low|
[NTSB AAR-79-7, ¶1.17]
[NTSB AAR-79-7, ¶2]
[NTSB AAR-79-7, ¶3.2]
NTSB Aircraft Accident Report, AAR-79-7, United Airlines, Inc., McDonnell-Douglas, DC-8-61, N8082U, Portland, Oregon, December 28, 1978
Copyright 2019. Code 7700 LLC. All Rights Reserved.
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To have sex
they accomplished flying
The Wright brothers developed the first effective control systems for aircraft and went to great lengths to make engines lighter.
they built planes because it was mans dream at the time
because monkeys told orvoville in a dream
They wont to be the first people to have the first successful flight.
Orville and Wilbur Wright were the first of many to sustain flight on a heavier-than-air machine. They were the first ones to accomplish such an innovation. The announcement of the first flight ignited the world's passion for flying. The U.S Army signed a contract with the Wright Brothers' in 1908.
Yes, Wilbur and Orville Wright were brothers. That is why they are called "the Wright brothers."
The Wright Brothers are Wilbur and Orville Wright.
The Wright brothers were Orville and Wilbur Wright.
The Wright Brothers named it Wright Flyer.
what kind of awards did wright brothers get?
The Wright brothers are both dead.
the Wright Brothers are Orville and Wilbur.
The Wright Brothers where buried in California
no david wright is not related in any way to the wright brothers
The wright brothers was important to research because we would not have air plane if whaten for the wright brothers
The Wright Brothers were 2 brothers who created the world's first motor-operated airplane. They were Orville Wright and Wilbur Wright. Hope that helped =)
No, the Wright brothers were business men
The Wright brothers did not create flight.
Wright brothers academy
how did the wright brothers flew their planes
where the wright brothers in war 1,2,3
What was one of the wright brothers disappointments
The Wright brothers were not given middle names by their parents. Their full names were Orville Wright and Wilbur Wright.
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Welcome bɑck to the Lore Daily for a featᴜre on TҺe lɑrgest militɑɾy cargo pƖane in tҺe US ιnventoɾy, the C-5M Suρer GaƖɑxy, and its massive nose thɑt opens to load vehicles, aιɾcraft and other cargo.
WeƖcome back to The DaιƖy Aviation for a feature on The Ɩargest milιTary cɑrgo plane in the US inventoɾy, tҺe C-5M Super Galaxy, ɑnd ιts мassive nose thaT opens to load vehicles, aircrafT and other cargo.
EnTeɾ TҺe awe-inspiring Lockheed C-5 Galaxy. tҺis hᴜge cargo aircɾɑfT is aмong tҺe largesT mιlιTary ɑircrɑft in the woɾƖd, and certaιnly one of the most імргeѕѕіⱱe To look at.
IncredιbƖy, this gianT aircraft fiɾst flew back in 1968, but it is stιƖl very much at tҺe forefronT of the modeɾn Unιted States Air foгсe. Varioᴜs ᴜpgrades to the aircɾaft could see it fƖy with the USAF until aT least 2040 and possiƄly beyond, making it one of TҺe longest serving aircraft in tҺe United StaTes Air foгсe. time and time аɡаіп, it Һas proved iTs woɾth as a strategic airlifter.
Look the below ɑ video together!
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Air pressure and oxygen levels at high altitudes are essential factors that affect human health and the performance of aircraft engines. As altitude increases, air pressure decreases, which means there is less air available for breathing and engine combustion. Understanding how air pressure and oxygen levels change with altitude is important for pilots, aircraft engineers, and mountaineers.
Air Pressure and Oxygen Levels at High Altitudes
At sea level, the average air pressure is around 1013 hPa (hectopascals) or 1 atmosphere. This pressure is generated by the weight of the air molecules above the earth’s surface. As altitude increases, the pressure decreases, and the density of air decreases as well. This means there are fewer air molecules per unit volume of space, and therefore less oxygen available for breathing and combustion.
The rate at which air pressure decreases with altitude is known as the standard atmosphere. According to the standard atmosphere, air pressure decreases by about 1 hPa per 30 feet (9 meters) of altitude. At an altitude of 10,000 feet (3,048 meters), the air pressure is around 700 hPa, which means there is only about 70% of oxygen available compared to sea level. At an altitude of 18,000 feet (5,486 meters), the air pressure drops to around 500 hPa, which means there is only about 50% of the oxygen available compared to sea level.
The decrease in air pressure and oxygen levels at high altitudes can cause a variety of health problems for humans. At altitudes above 8,000 feet (2,438 meters), most people will begin to feel the effects of altitude sickness. Symptoms of altitude sickness include headache, nausea, dizziness, and shortness of breath. These symptoms are caused by a lack of oxygen in the body and can be exacerbated by physical activity, dehydration, and alcohol consumption.
To mitigate the effects of high altitude on human health, aircraft cabins, and mountaineering equipment are often pressurized to maintain a comfortable environment for occupants. In aircraft, this is achieved by using compressed air from the engines to pressurize the cabin. The cabin pressure is maintained at a level equivalent to an altitude of around 8,000 feet (2,438 meters), which is still lower than sea level but high enough to allow passengers to breathe comfortably. In mountaineering, climbers often carry oxygen tanks to supplement their breathing at high altitudes.
Air pressure and oxygen levels at high altitudes also affect the performance of aircraft engines. As air pressure decreases, the engine’s power output decreases as well because there is less oxygen available for combustion. At high altitudes, aircraft engines must be designed to operate more efficiently and burn less fuel to maintain adequate power output. This is achieved by using turbofan engines, which compress the incoming air to increase the pressure and oxygen levels before combustion.
Air pressure and oxygen levels at high altitudes are important factors that affect human health and the performance of aircraft engines. Understanding how these factors change with altitude is essential for pilots, aircraft engineers, and mountaineers. By maintaining a comfortable environment for occupants and designing efficient aircraft engines, we can mitigate the effects of high altitudes on human health and improve the performance of aircraft.
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Fantastic and very detailed NASA KSC PAO contracted (by blueprint) high fidelity, model mock-up of the Apollo A7L spacesuit. The one-piece off-white suit has the blue helmet collar, blue and red flanges, connectors, and two hoses, detachable utility and checklist pockets on the legs, zipper pocket on the chest, penlight pocket on the left arm, and a NASA and American flag patch. This suit was used by NASA PAO for public educational, space center lobby displays, and at the KSC's Spaceport USA now known as KSCVC. Just about as close to acquiring a real NASA space suit as you can get. RRAuction COA.
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Airplane Simulator Mod APK 2023 Download - Happymod.games
Airplane Simulator is a adventure game that has been loved by gamers so far. At present, many people want to download Airplane Simulator apk 2023, but Airplane Simulator often consumes a lot of energy and money, so Airplane Simulator mod apk has become a more important pursuit. Happymod.games provides great convenience for Airplane Simulator mod apk download.
Airplane Simulator has gone through many versions over the years. Airplane Simulator 2018, Airplane Simulator 2019, Airplane Simulator 2020, Airplane Simulator 2021. Airplane Simulator 2023 is the latest version, so Airplane Simulator 1.0 2023 is often used as a keyword for user searches.
Happymod.games provides different versions of Airplane Simulator mod apk. Contains the latest 1.0 MOD versions for 2023. Download Airplane Simulator 1.0 2023 mod APK for Android for FREE now at Happymod.games!
Description of Airplane Simulator Mod APK 2023
Are you an aviation enthusiast looking for the ultimate flight simulator experience? Look no further than the Google Play Store, where you'll find an amazing selection of flight games that cater to all types of players. One of the most realistic flight simulators on the market is RFS - Real Flight Simulator, which offers stunning graphics and physics that make you feel like you're actually flying. Extreme Landings is another game that focuses on realistic flight dynamics, challenging you to navigate difficult weather conditions and land your plane safely. If you're interested in managing your own airline, Airline Manager - 2023 is a game that lets you do just that, from buying planes and hiring staff to expanding your routes and building a successful airline empire. Flight Sim 2018 is another popular game that lets you pilot a wide range of planes, from small prop planes to massive commercial jets.For those who want to experience the adrenaline rush of emergency situations, Prepare for Impact is a game that simulates various emergencies, from engine failures to fires, challenging you to stay calm under pressure and make quick decisions. Sky Warriors: Airplane Games is another game that puts you in the middle of intense dogfights and air battles, allowing you to test your piloting skills against other players online. If you're looking for a more realistic take on carrier landings, Carrier Landings is a game that simulates the experience of landing on an aircraft carrier, challenging you to land your plane on a moving platform in the middle of the ocean. Sky Combat: War Planes Online is another game that lets you engage in air combat against other players in real-time, with customizable planes and intense gameplay. For those who want to practice their instrument flying skills, IFR Flight Simulator is a game that simulates instrument flight rules, challenging you to navigate through clouds and bad weather using only your instruments. Flight Simulator: Plane Game is another game that focuses on realistic flight dynamics and physics, allowing you to fly a wide range of planes and complete challenging missions.Wings of Heroes is a game that lets you experience the thrill of World War II air combat, with historically accurate planes and intense dogfighting action. Take Off Flight Simulator is another game that lets you pilot a wide range of planes, from small prop planes to massive commercial jets, with realistic graphics and physics that make you feel like you're actually in the cockpit flight simulator. No matter what type of experience you're looking for, the Google Play Store has a game that's sure to deliver the thrill of aviation right to your fingertips.Looking for the ultimate flight gaming experience? Look no further than the Google Play Store, where you'll find an incredible selection of flight simulator games that cater to all types of aviation enthusiasts. If you're looking for a game that lets you run your own airline, then Airline Commander: Flight Game is the perfect choice for you. With this game, you get to experience what it's like to be an airline CEO, making strategic decisions, and managing the day-to-day operations of your company. For those who prefer to take to the skies themselves, Flight Pilot: 3D Simulator is a top-rated game that lets you pilot your own plane, performing daring maneuvers and landing at challenging airports. Turboprop Flight Simulator 3D is another great option that focuses on propeller planes, offering a more classic flying experience.For those who demand the most realistic graphics and physics, Aerofly FS 2023 is a game that delivers, with stunningly detailed landscapes and true-to-life flight dynamics. Infinite Flight Simulator is another game that boasts exceptional graphics and immersive gameplay, allowing you to fly a wide range of planes and complete challenging missions. World of Airports takes up a notch, allowing you to not only fly planes but also manage a busy airport.
Happymod.games Airplane Simulator MOD APK
Spending a lot of time in the early days of Airplane Simulator accumulating Airplane Simulator of in-game currency is a very painful thing. Of course, in addition to money that can help you solve this problem, Happymod Airplane Simulator mod apk will be a better choice. Airplane Simulator users have the following comments:
I've been playing since I came into contact with Airplane Simulator Flying Game, I'm very grateful that this app has brought me a lot of joy, and now it's very good for Android on Google. This app has a high degree of freedom and is very suitable for use when you are free. It is highly playable and recommended to buy.
The game experience of Airplane Simulator Flying Game is really good. Many users have experienced happiness in Airplane Simulator Flying Game and gained friends. I am an old player of Airplane Simulator Flying Game, and I have my feelings for Airplane Simulator Flying Game! Come on, hope to do better!
Download Airplane Simulator Mod Apk from Happymod Tutorial
A. Download and install the Happymod apk at https://happymod.games/.
B. Search for Airplane Simulator in the Happymod app.
C. Click the desired mod in the Airplane Simulator search results list.
D. Click download package to install Airplane Simulator mod apk
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