manu/mldr-zoomed-100char-total-queries-documents

chunk_id stringlengths 3 9	chunk stringlengths 1 100
9840_89	their feelings, thoughts and attitudes as 4-years-olds.
9840_90	Brain regions
9840_91	Visual
9840_92	Visual perspective-taking studies that focus on brain regions are generally performed by collecting
9840_93	functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) data while participants perform perspective-taking
9840_94	tasks. For example, a participant may be shown a picture of another person with objects around them
9840_95	and asked to take on the viewpoint of that person and indicate the number of objects they see
9840_96	(Level 1 visual perspective-taking) and if the objects are located to the right or left of the
9840_97	other person (level 2 visual perspective-taking). While the participant is completing this task
9840_98	they are also having an fMRI scan.
9840_99	A meta-analysis that looked at existing fMRI research on visual perspective-taking as of 2013
9840_100	suggested that several areas of the brain have clustered activation during these perspective-taking
9840_101	tasks. These areas included the left prefrontal cortex, the precuneus, and the left cerebellum.
9840_102	Studies suggest these areas of the brain are involved in decision making, visual imagery, and
9840_103	attention respectively.
9840_104	Conceptual
9840_105	Research assessing the brain regions involved in conceptual perspective-taking also suggests that
9840_106	multiple brain areas are potentially involved. Studies have been conducted by administering a
9840_107	positron emission tomography (PET) scan and asking participants to engage in perspective-taking
9840_108	tasks. For example, in one study, participants who were all medical students were asked to consider
9840_109	the knowledge base someone who was not in the medical field would have on a list of medical
9840_110	questions.
9840_111	Studies have suggested that regions that are activated during cognitive perspective-taking include
9840_112	the right parietal lobe and the posterior cingulate cortex among others. The literature also points
9840_113	out that some areas seem to be involved both when people imagine themselves and when they imagine
9840_114	the perspective of others. For example, when participants were asked to imagine themselves engaging
9840_115	in an activity versus imagining another person engaging in that activity the precuneus and the
9840_116	supplementary motor area (SMA) were activated, suggesting visual imagery and motor movement
9840_117	thoughts were involved in both tasks.
9840_118	Deficits
9840_119	Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
9840_120	Research has highlighted that perspective-taking may be more difficult for certain subsets of
9840_121	children that have attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) plus co-occurring conduct
9840_122	disorders. ADHD research has shown that children with this diagnosis have shown impairments in
9840_123	attention and communication. Perspective-taking research found that that these children have a
9840_124	harder time taking on the viewpoint of others than children who do not.
9840_125	Autism
9840_126	There is evidence to suggest that children with autism may be able to engage in visual
9840_127	perspective-taking but may have difficulty engaging in conceptual perspective-taking. For example,
9840_128	a study that compared perspective-taking scores in children who had been diagnosed with autism as
9840_129	compared to children who did not have this diagnosis found no significant difference in scores on
9840_130	level 1 and level 2 visual perspective-taking. However, the study found it was much harder for
9840_131	autistic children to engage in conceptual perspective-taking tasks.
9840_132	Some studies have been done to explore potential interventions that could help improve
9840_133	perspective-taking abilities in children with autism. These studies suggested that the use of video
9840_134	may be helpful in teaching perspective-taking skills in children with autism. For example, an
9840_135	intervention study with autistic children, found that showing the children a video of someone
9840_136	engaging in perspective-taking tasks and explaining their actions led to improved
9840_137	perspective-taking ability.
9840_138	Outcomes
9840_139	An abundance of literature has linked perspective-taking abilities with other behaviors. Much of
9840_140	this literature specifically focuses on conceptual perspective-taking (or taking on the viewpoint
9840_141	of another person's thoughts, feelings and attitudes).
9840_142	Benefit
9840_143	Visualizing a situation from another person's point of view (conceptual perspective-taking) gives
9840_144	one the ability to better understand the reason behind that person's actions. This also aids in a
9840_145	way to engage in social conversations at different levels in a more acceptable and friendly way.
9840_146	Empathy
9840_147	Many studies have associated perspective-taking with empathy. Psychologist Mark Davis suggested
9840_148	that empathy consists of multiple dimensions. To assess this, Davis developed the Interpersonal
9840_149	Reactivity Index (IRI). The IRI consists of four subscales: fantasy, empathic concern, personal
9840_150	distress, and perspective-taking. The perspective-taking subscale asks participants to report how
9840_151	likely they are to engage in trying to see things from another person's point of view. Studies
9840_152	using this widely cited measure have found that perspective-taking is associated with many
9840_153	prosocial behaviors. One study, which assessed cross-cultural data in 63 countries using the IRI,
9840_154	concluded that perspective-taking and empathic concern was associated with volunteerism and
9840_155	agreeableness as well as self-esteem and life satisfaction.
9840_156	Additionally, research has suggested that perspective-taking leads to empathic concern. This
9840_157	research further suggests that in looking at perspective-taking and empathy it is important to
9840_158	distinguish between two different types of perspective-taking. The research posits that there is a
9840_159	difference between thinking of how one would act, feel and behave if placed in someone else's
9840_160	situation and thinking of the way that another person thinks, feels, and behaves in their own
9840_161	situation. The results of this research reveals that thinking of how another person behaves and
9840_162	feels in their own situation leads to feelings of empathy. However, thinking of how one would
9840_163	behave in another person's situation leads to feelings of empathy as well as distress.
9840_164	Research has also found that in interactions involving negotiations, taking on the perspective of
9840_165	another person and empathizing with them may have differential outcomes. One study found that
9840_166	people who engaged in perspective-taking were more effective in making a deal with another person
9840_167	and finding innovative agreements that satisfied both parties as compared to those who empathized
9840_168	with someone else.
9840_169	Sympathy and caring
9840_170	Research has revealed that perspective-taking was associated with sympathy toward others and
9840_171	prosocial behavior in children as young as 18 months old. Another study looking at sibling
9840_172	interactions found that toddlers who were older siblings were more likely to help take care of
9840_173	their younger siblings when they demonstrated higher perspective-taking abilities.
9840_174	Creativity
9840_175	Perspective-taking has also been associated with creativity. For example, perspective-taking has
9840_176	been found to increase the amount of creative ideas generated in team activities. Another study
9840_177	suggested that perspective-taking could lead to more creative and innovative ideas particularly in
9840_178	participants who were internally driven to complete a task.
9840_179	Bias and stereotype reduction
9840_180	Many studies within perspective-taking literature have focused on the potential effects of
9840_181	perspective-taking on the perceptions of outgroup members and have found that there are many
9840_182	potential benefits to perspective-taking. Literature on perspective-taking and bias and
9840_183	stereotyping is generally done by asking participants to take the perspective of another person who
9840_184	is different from them in certain domains (i.e. asking young adult participants to take on the
9840_185	perspective of an elderly person or asking White participants to take on the perspective of a Black
9840_186	person as seen in a photograph or video). These studies have shown that perspective-taking can lead
9840_187	to reduced stereotyping of outgroup members, improved attitudes towards others, and increased
9840_188	helping behavior of outgroup members. Research also suggests that perspective-taking can lead to a

9840_89

their feelings, thoughts and attitudes as 4-years-olds.

9840_90

Brain regions

9840_91

Visual

9840_92

Visual perspective-taking studies that focus on brain regions are generally performed by collecting

9840_93

functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) data while participants perform perspective-taking

9840_94

tasks. For example, a participant may be shown a picture of another person with objects around them

9840_95

and asked to take on the viewpoint of that person and indicate the number of objects they see

9840_96

(Level 1 visual perspective-taking) and if the objects are located to the right or left of the

9840_97

other person (level 2 visual perspective-taking). While the participant is completing this task

9840_98

they are also having an fMRI scan.

9840_99

A meta-analysis that looked at existing fMRI research on visual perspective-taking as of 2013

9840_100

suggested that several areas of the brain have clustered activation during these perspective-taking

9840_101

tasks. These areas included the left prefrontal cortex, the precuneus, and the left cerebellum.

9840_102

Studies suggest these areas of the brain are involved in decision making, visual imagery, and

9840_103

attention respectively.

9840_104

Conceptual

9840_105

Research assessing the brain regions involved in conceptual perspective-taking also suggests that

9840_106

multiple brain areas are potentially involved. Studies have been conducted by administering a

9840_107

positron emission tomography (PET) scan and asking participants to engage in perspective-taking

9840_108

tasks. For example, in one study, participants who were all medical students were asked to consider

9840_109

the knowledge base someone who was not in the medical field would have on a list of medical

9840_110

questions.

9840_111

Studies have suggested that regions that are activated during cognitive perspective-taking include

9840_112

the right parietal lobe and the posterior cingulate cortex among others. The literature also points

9840_113

out that some areas seem to be involved both when people imagine themselves and when they imagine

9840_114

the perspective of others. For example, when participants were asked to imagine themselves engaging

9840_115

in an activity versus imagining another person engaging in that activity the precuneus and the

9840_116

supplementary motor area (SMA) were activated, suggesting visual imagery and motor movement

9840_117

thoughts were involved in both tasks.

9840_118

Deficits

9840_119

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

9840_120

Research has highlighted that perspective-taking may be more difficult for certain subsets of

9840_121

children that have attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) plus co-occurring conduct

9840_122

disorders. ADHD research has shown that children with this diagnosis have shown impairments in

9840_123

attention and communication. Perspective-taking research found that that these children have a

9840_124

harder time taking on the viewpoint of others than children who do not.

9840_125

Autism

9840_126

There is evidence to suggest that children with autism may be able to engage in visual

9840_127

perspective-taking but may have difficulty engaging in conceptual perspective-taking. For example,

9840_128

a study that compared perspective-taking scores in children who had been diagnosed with autism as

9840_129

compared to children who did not have this diagnosis found no significant difference in scores on

9840_130

level 1 and level 2 visual perspective-taking. However, the study found it was much harder for

9840_131

autistic children to engage in conceptual perspective-taking tasks.

9840_132

Some studies have been done to explore potential interventions that could help improve

9840_133

perspective-taking abilities in children with autism. These studies suggested that the use of video

9840_134

may be helpful in teaching perspective-taking skills in children with autism. For example, an

9840_135

intervention study with autistic children, found that showing the children a video of someone

9840_136

engaging in perspective-taking tasks and explaining their actions led to improved

9840_137

perspective-taking ability.

9840_138

Outcomes

9840_139

An abundance of literature has linked perspective-taking abilities with other behaviors. Much of

9840_140

this literature specifically focuses on conceptual perspective-taking (or taking on the viewpoint

9840_141

of another person's thoughts, feelings and attitudes).

9840_142

Benefit

9840_143

Visualizing a situation from another person's point of view (conceptual perspective-taking) gives

9840_144

one the ability to better understand the reason behind that person's actions. This also aids in a

9840_145

way to engage in social conversations at different levels in a more acceptable and friendly way.

9840_146

Empathy

9840_147

Many studies have associated perspective-taking with empathy. Psychologist Mark Davis suggested

9840_148

that empathy consists of multiple dimensions. To assess this, Davis developed the Interpersonal

9840_149

Reactivity Index (IRI). The IRI consists of four subscales: fantasy, empathic concern, personal

9840_150

distress, and perspective-taking. The perspective-taking subscale asks participants to report how

9840_151

likely they are to engage in trying to see things from another person's point of view. Studies

9840_152

using this widely cited measure have found that perspective-taking is associated with many

9840_153

prosocial behaviors. One study, which assessed cross-cultural data in 63 countries using the IRI,

9840_154

concluded that perspective-taking and empathic concern was associated with volunteerism and

9840_155

agreeableness as well as self-esteem and life satisfaction.

9840_156

Additionally, research has suggested that perspective-taking leads to empathic concern. This

9840_157

research further suggests that in looking at perspective-taking and empathy it is important to

9840_158

distinguish between two different types of perspective-taking. The research posits that there is a

9840_159

difference between thinking of how one would act, feel and behave if placed in someone else's

9840_160

situation and thinking of the way that another person thinks, feels, and behaves in their own

9840_161

situation. The results of this research reveals that thinking of how another person behaves and

9840_162

feels in their own situation leads to feelings of empathy. However, thinking of how one would

9840_163

behave in another person's situation leads to feelings of empathy as well as distress.

9840_164

Research has also found that in interactions involving negotiations, taking on the perspective of

9840_165

another person and empathizing with them may have differential outcomes. One study found that

9840_166

people who engaged in perspective-taking were more effective in making a deal with another person

9840_167

and finding innovative agreements that satisfied both parties as compared to those who empathized

9840_168

with someone else.

9840_169

Sympathy and caring

9840_170

Research has revealed that perspective-taking was associated with sympathy toward others and

9840_171

prosocial behavior in children as young as 18 months old. Another study looking at sibling

9840_172

interactions found that toddlers who were older siblings were more likely to help take care of

9840_173

their younger siblings when they demonstrated higher perspective-taking abilities.

9840_174

Creativity

9840_175

Perspective-taking has also been associated with creativity. For example, perspective-taking has

9840_176

been found to increase the amount of creative ideas generated in team activities. Another study

9840_177

suggested that perspective-taking could lead to more creative and innovative ideas particularly in

9840_178

participants who were internally driven to complete a task.

9840_179

Bias and stereotype reduction

9840_180

Many studies within perspective-taking literature have focused on the potential effects of

9840_181

perspective-taking on the perceptions of outgroup members and have found that there are many

9840_182

potential benefits to perspective-taking. Literature on perspective-taking and bias and

9840_183

stereotyping is generally done by asking participants to take the perspective of another person who

9840_184

is different from them in certain domains (i.e. asking young adult participants to take on the

9840_185

perspective of an elderly person or asking White participants to take on the perspective of a Black

9840_186

person as seen in a photograph or video). These studies have shown that perspective-taking can lead

9840_187

to reduced stereotyping of outgroup members, improved attitudes towards others, and increased

9840_188

helping behavior of outgroup members. Research also suggests that perspective-taking can lead to a