There are two steles at the Cross Temple site: the Liao stele was raised in 960, and the Yuan stele was raised in 1365. Both were re-carved during the Ming dynasty in 1535. During the Cultural Revolution, the Liao stele was broken in the middle and part of its bottom left corner went missing, while the Yuan stele was broken into three pieces. During the early 21st century, both were repaired and re-raised. Both steles bear inscriptions, though they do not explicitly mention Christianity. The Yuan stele features a cross at its top, but according to the scholar Wang Xiaojing, it was probably not made by the Nestorians, as stele making was a Han Chinese practice, and there were very few Han Nestorians during the Yuan dynasty.
Scholars generally agree that while the two steles were from the Liao and Yuan dynasties respectively, their inscriptions were tampered with by Ming writers, and there are errors in their stated dates and names of individuals. According to Wang Xiaojing, in order to elevate the temple's status and garner more support and donations from Buddhists, the Ming writers changed the inscriptions of the two steles to claim that the temple received royal charters, that it had received donations from famous figures, and that it had been larger in size during the Yuan period. Tang Xiaofeng and Zhang Yingying suggest that the altered inscriptions were based on rumours.


A stone plaque inscribed with the characters 「古剎十字禪林」 ('Ancient Cross Buddhist Temple') had previously been installed atop the temple's gate. Records from 1919 indicated the plaque was still present, but in 1931 Saeki noted that it had fallen off and broken. When Wu Mengling (吴梦麟) visited the site in October 1992, he found one of the broken pieces in front of the gingko trees. According to Wang, the plaque is currently stored by the Fangshan District Bureau of Cultural Artifacts, though Tang and Zhang claimed it is on display at the Beijing Stone Carving Art Museum.


There were previously two blocks of carved stone at the Cross Temple site. The two stone blocks are rectangular, with a vertical hollow in the rear. They are 68.5 cm (27.0 in) tall and 58.5 cm (23.0 in) wide. For each, the front face and sides are 22 cm (8.7 in) and 14 cm (5.5 in) thick, respectively. Each have crosses carved into their front face, and flowers carved into each of their two sides. The scholar Niu Ruiji claimed that the two stone blocks were originally connected, with the two crosses at the opposite ends.
Reginald Johnston first discovered the stone blocks and recorded them in his 1919 article. Johnston recorded claims by the monks that the blocks had been discovered underground in 1357, during repairs to the temple's Hall of Heavenly Kings. In 1921, Francis Crawford Burkitt published his identification and translation of the inscriptions on one of the stone blocks.
Fearing that foreigners might remove the stone blocks from the site, Zhuang Shangyan and Wang Zuobin of the Peiping Commission for the Preservation of Antiquities (北平古物保管委員會) surveyed the site in September 1931. The following month, the blocks were transported to the Peiping Museum of History (北平歷史博物館) for exhibition. During the Second Sino-Japanese War, they were transferred to Nanjing, and are currently on display in the Nanjing Museum. A replica of one of the blocks is in the collection of the National Museum of China, and two replicas are at the nearby Yunju Temple.
According to Tang Li, Christians following East Syrian traditions in the Far East often practised adoration of the cross and images. While both feature crosses and flowers in vases, details of the carvings differ between the two blocks. The sides of one block feature chrysanthemums in a vase; the cross on its front is supported by clouds and lotuses, and features a Baoxianghua pattern at its centre. Additionally, the cross is framed by an inscription in Syriac, which reads:


ܚܘܪܘ ܠܘܬܗ ܘ ܣܒܪܘ ܒܗ
Look towards him and trust in him.


According to P. G. Borbone, the text is often associated with the triumphal cross. The text-cross combination is also found on a funerary inscription near Chifeng in Inner Mongolia, but the text is placed above the arms of the Chifeng cross. According to Moule, F. C. Burkitt found the same Syriac text surrounding the Christian cross, but with the addition of the phrase "the living cross", in one of the Add. 14459 Syriac gospel manuscripts, as the frontispiece of the Gospel of Luke.
On the other stone block, the cross also has a Baoxianghua pattern, but there are two heart-like shapes extensions at the left and right ends of the cross. It is also mounted on two layers of lotuses, one facing up and one facing down. On the side, it depicts peonies in a basin.


Cyfeilliog (Welsh pronunciation: [kəˈvɛiɬjɔɡ]) or Cyfeiliog (Welsh: [kəˈvɛiljɔɡ], in Old Welsh Cemelliauc; probably died 927) was a bishop in south-east Wales. The location and extent of his diocese is uncertain, but lands granted to him are mainly close to Caerwent, suggesting that his diocese covered Gwent. There is evidence that his diocese extended into Ergyng (now south-west Herefordshire). He is recorded in charters dating from the mid-880s to the early tenth century.
In 914 he was captured by the Vikings and ransomed by Edward the Elder, King of the Anglo-Saxons, for 40 pounds of silver. Edward's assistance is regarded by historians as evidence that he inherited the overlordship of his father, Alfred the Great, over the south-east Welsh kingdoms.
Cyfeilliog is probably the author of a cryptogram (encrypted text) which was added as a marginal note to the ninth-century collection of poetry known as the Juvencus Manuscript. Composing the cryptogram would have required knowledge of Latin and Greek. The twelfth-century Book of Llandaff records his death in 927, but some historians are sceptical as they think that this date is late for a bishop active in the 880s.


Cyfeilliog's diocese was located in south-east Wales. In the ninth century, the area was divided into three kingdoms, which were sometimes combined by more powerful kings. Gwent, north of the Severn Estuary, was south of Ergyng (now south-west Herefordshire) and east of Glywysing (now Glamorgan). Mercia, the Anglo-Saxon kingdom on the eastern Welsh border, had claimed hegemony over most of Wales since the early ninth century. In 873 the Vikings drove out King Burgred of Mercia and appointed Ceolwulf as a client king. Ceolwulf maintained Mercian efforts to control the Welsh, and in 878 he defeated and killed Rhodri Mawr (Rhodri the Great), King of Gwynedd in north Wales. Around 879, Ceolwulf was replaced by Æthelred, Lord of the Mercians. In 881, Rhodri's sons defeated Æthelred in battle, but he continued to dominate the south-east Welsh kingdoms, and Rhodri's sons sought the protection of King Alfred the Great of Wessex. Alfred's Welsh biographer, Asser, wrote:


At that time [late 880s], and for a considerable time before then, all the districts of right-hand [southern] Wales belonged to King Alfred, and still do ... Hywel ap Rhys (the King of Glywysing) and Brochfael and Ffernfael (sons of Meurig and kings of Gwent), driven by the might and tyrannical behaviour of Ealdorman Æthelred and the Mercians, petitioned King Alfred of their own accord, in order to obtain lordship and protection from him in the face of their enemies.


A cryptogram (encrypted text) in the Juvencus Manuscript, which was written in Wales in the second half of the ninth century, praises a priest called Cemelliauc (the Old Welsh spelling of the Modern Welsh Cyfeilliog). Such cryptograms usually contained the names of their authors, in this case almost certainly Bishop Cyfeilliog as his name was uncommon and he is the only known person with that name who was active when the cryptogram was written. It is in Latin, with each letter replaced by the Greek numeral for the number of the letter in the Latin alphabet. It is described by the scholar Helen McKee as "charmingly boastful", and it reads in translation, with some words missing due to deterioration of the manuscript at the edge of the page:


Cemelliauc the learned priest
[ ] this without any trouble
To God, brothers, constantly,
Pray for me [ ].
The cryptogram is in a different hand from the rest of the manuscript, and it is probably Cyfeilliog's only contribution to it. The main scribe was Núadu, which is an Irish name, and the code of the cryptogram was probably invented by an Irish scholar called Dubthach at the court of Gwynedd in the first half of the ninth century. The cryptogram is one of several indications of Welsh–Irish links in the Juvencus Manuscript.


Cyfeilliog may have been an abbot before he became a bishop. He is included in a list of abbots of Llantwit said to have been in a "very decayed and rent" parchment discovered in about 1719, but as the source for the document was the forger Iolo Morganwg, it is uncertain whether it was genuine. The historian Patrick Sims-Williams comments that the fact that Cyfeilliog is not mentioned in any charter before he became a bishop "leaves open the possibility that he really is the Camelauc listed among the abbots of Llantwit, dubious though the source is".
Cyfeilliog is first recorded in charters dating to the mid-880s. According to a Canterbury Cathedral roll, he was consecrated as a bishop by Æthelred, who was Archbishop of Canterbury between 870 and 888. Historians are uncertain of the validity of the list, but as southern Welsh kings accepted Alfred's overlordship in the 880s, acknowledgement of the primacy of Canterbury by bishops at this time would not be unlikely. Three clerical witnesses to Cyfeilliog's charters also witnessed those of Bishop Nudd, and another three those of Bishop Cerennyr, probably because these bishops were Cyfeilliog's predecessors, and Cyfeilliog inherited members of their episcopal households. Cerennyr was active over the whole of the south-east, suggesting that he had a superior status. In a list of bishops in the twelfth-century Book of Llandaff Cyfeilliog is placed after Nudd.


The Book of Llandaff claims that there was a succession of bishops of Llandaff, covering the whole of south-east Wales between the River Wye and the River Towy, from the fifth century onwards. This is accepted by the Welsh historian John Edward Lloyd in 1939 in his History of Wales, but is rejected by Wendy Davies and Thomas Charles-Edwards as an attempt to extend the history of the diocese back to an implausibly early date. Cyfeilliog is included in this succession, but his bishopric covered a much smaller area, and the locations of land grants to him suggest that he was mainly active in Gwent. All those which can be securely located are near Caerwent in Gwent, suggesting that he may have been based in the town, and none of the charters relate to Glywysing (Glamorgan) or Llandaff.
The early tenth–century Anglo-Saxon Chronicle described Cyfeilliog as bishop of Archenfield, which was the English name for Ergyng. His diocese probably covered both Gwent and Ergyng. In this period, Ergyng was Welsh in language and custom, but under English rule, and he may have ministered to people there with the approval of the Bishop of Hereford.


Charters preserved in the Book of Llandaff record grants to Cyfeilliog. The earliest charter is probably one dating to around 885: King Hywel ap Rhys of Glywysing gave Cyfeilliog two slaves and their progeny for the souls of his wife, sons and daughters. A witness called Asser attested this charter immediately after Cyfeilliog, a position of honour. The Asser who was the biographer of Alfred the Great spent a year ill in Caerwent at this time, and he may have attested the charter while temporarily attached to Cyfeilliog.
Cyfeilliog received grants of land in several charters from Brochfael ap Meurig, King of Gwent. In one he gave three modii – about 120 acres (50 hectares) – of land with weirs on the Severn and the Meurig, a tributary of the Teifi, together with free landing rights and rights of shipwreck; and in another charter two churches, with six modii of land and free landing rights for ships at the mouth of the Troggy. Other donors included Hywel's son Arthfael, who in about 890 granted Villa Caer Birran, at Treberran, Pencoyd, with four modii of land to Cyfeilliog.
Cyfeilliog had several legal disputes with King Brochfael. In about 905, there was a disagreement between their households. Cyfeilliog was awarded an "insult price" "in puro auro" (in pure gold) of the worth of his face, lengthwise and breadthwise. The charter refers to his value in accordance with his status, under the ancient legal concept of wynepwerth ('honour', literally face-worth). Brochfael was unable to pay in gold and paid with six modii of land at Llanfihangel instead. Another dispute concerned a church with three modii of land which Brochfael gave to his daughter, described as "a holy virgin". In around 910, there was a dispute between Cyfeilliog and Brochfael over the church and its land, and judgement was again given in Cyfeilliog's favour and endorsed by Brochfael.


In 914, Cyfeilliog was captured by the Vikings, and the event was recorded in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle:


In this year a great naval force came over here from the south from Brittany, and two earls, Ohter and Hroald, with them. And they then went west round the coast so that they arrived at the Severn Estuary and ravaged in Wales everywhere along the coast where it suited them. And they captured Cyfeilliog, bishop of Archenfield, and took him with them to the ships; and then King Edward ransomed him for 40 pounds [of silver].
The payment of Cyfeilliog's ransom, described by Charles-Edwards as "a princely sum", by Alfred's son and successor Edward the Elder is regarded by historians as evidence that he maintained his father's lordship over south-east Wales.


Cyfeilliog died in 927 according to the Book of Llandaff. The date is accepted by Charles-Edwards, but Sims-Williams and Davies are sceptical because they regard the date as late for someone consecrated by Archbishop Æthelred, who died in 888. According to the Book of Llandaff, Cyfeilliog was succeeded by Libiau (also spelled Llibio and Llifio). The Canterbury consecration list says that Libiau was also consecrated by Æthelred, which may be a mistake, or Libiau may have had a different see from Cyfeilliog. Most local bishops in the eighth and ninth centuries appear to have been active in both Gwent and Ergyng, but Cyfeilliog's successors seem to have only ministered in Gwent. Bishops of Hereford and of Glasbury may have taken over in Ergyng.


"Dance the Night" is a song by English and Albanian singer Dua Lipa from the soundtrack to the fantasy comedy film Barbie (2023). Lipa co-wrote the song with songwriter Caroline Ailin and its producers Andrew Wyatt and Mark Ronson; the Picard Brothers also contributed to production. Atlantic and Warner Records released the song as the soundtrack's lead single on 25 May 2023. A pop, disco, and funk song, it was inspired by a dance sequence in the film and is about always appearing flawless despite heartbreak.
Music critics overwhelmingly compared the song's sound to Lipa's second studio album, Future Nostalgia (2020), which was viewed positively by some but left others disappointed. It was nominated for several awards, including Song of the Year and Best Song Written for Visual Media at the 66th Annual Grammy Awards. "Dance the Night" reached number one in several countries, including the UK, and received multi-platinum certifications in Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Poland, and the UK, as well as diamond in France. It also reached number six on the Billboard Hot 100.
The music video for "Dance the Night" has a pink theme inspired by the Barbie aesthetic. It intersperses Lipa performing choreographed dances while singing the song with clips of Margot Robbie, Issa Rae, and Emma Mackey dancing at a disco party in the film, featuring a cameo appearance from Barbie's director Greta Gerwig at the end. The video received praise for its playful nature and Lipa's outfit. The song was included as the primary musical motif in the film. In 2024, Lipa sang one line from it while opening the 66th Annual Grammy Awards and performed it in full live for the first time at the Royal Albert Hall.


In March or April 2022, Mark Ronson received a text message from music supervisor George Drakoulias that simply stated: "Barbie?" Ronson was initially asked to create two songs for the fantasy comedy film Barbie: a pop song for a big dance sequence that was to be filmed within two weeks and a 1980s-style power ballad inspired by Ken. The film's director, Greta Gerwig, was inspired by the Bee Gees' work on the 1977 Saturday Night Fever soundtrack and requested that the pop song also be disco, sending him a playlist of her favourite music for reference. Observing similarities between Barbie and the ebb and flow of disco's popularity, Ronson watched the 2020 documentary film The Bee Gees: How Can You Mend a Broken Heart, which depicted Disco Demolition Night in 1979 Chicago, an event that signaled the genre's decline and closely paralleled Barbie's situation according to him. He set out to create a disco song which had "an unexpected slightly harder edge to it" and created a track called "Tastes Like Barbie" with Andrew Wyatt, while nearing the deadline. Gerwig was impressed and played it "100 times" while going to the film's set. Subsequently, they made a "dream list" of artists they desired to feature on the soundtrack and Ronson produced several other songs for it.
Ronson believed "Tastes Like Barbie" sounded like Dua Lipa's second studio album, Future Nostalgia (2020), and direct messaged her on Instagram to ask her to sing it for the soundtrack. Lipa, who was busy headlining the Future Nostalgia Tour and planned to distance herself from that disco sound on the follow-up album, accepted as she was a fan of Gerwig's work. She flew to New York and wrote the lyrics with Caroline Ailin in a studio over one week, the song now titled "Dance the Night"; Wyatt and Ronson are also co-writers. Lipa intended to soundtrack a scene where all things go "from good to bad" for Barbie, and she goes from being happy to thinking about death: "I love dance-crying. I knew it had to be fun, but I knew it needed a little element of sadness or a little pang of insufficiency". Initially satisfied with the melodies, chorus and verses, she later felt it could be improved and created new verses. Lipa wanted to synchronise the song to the choreography in its accompanying dance scene in the film—which she watched—approaching the process like writing a film score. Ronson and Lipa abandoned an initial melancholy version of the song and made it more upbeat to suit the scene, which represented a flawless day in Barbie's life. It was rewritten several times, and Lipa recalled: "Barbie completely took over our lives — we were completely Barb-ified." Parts of the song were updated to complement Margot Robbie's hand movements during the scene. The Picard Brothers assisted Ronson with the string arrangement.
In April 2023, it was revealed that Lipa had joined the cast of Barbie as Mermaid Barbie. On 22 May 2023, "Dance the Night" was announced as the lead single from the soundtrack, Barbie the Album (2023), set for release three days later. This marked her first musical output since the conclusion of Future Nostalgia's release cycle. Lipa shared a clip, in which she steps out of heels and recreates a shot of Robbie's arched foot in the second Barbie trailer before blowing a kiss to the camera; the song was later included in an official trailer. Warner Music Group sent it for radio airplay in Italy on 26 May, and Atlantic and Warner Records co-promoted the song to contemporary hit radio stations in the United States four days later. Warner also released "Dance the Night" on physical formats like cassette and CD.


"Dance the Night" is 2 minutes and 56 seconds long. Wyatt, Ronson, and the Picard Brothers produced the song. Wyatt plays bass and synthesiser; Ronson plays guitar and Rhodes piano; and the Picard Brothers play keyboards and programmed the track with its engineer Brandon Bost. The song also features cello, violin, and viola in its instrumentation, and it was mixed by Serban Ghenea at MixStar Studios in Virginia Beach with assistance from Bryce Bordone.
Musically, "Dance the Night" is a disco, disco-pop, and synth-pop song with influences of dance-pop. Consequence's Mary Siroky described it as "a pitch-perfect mixture of synth-pop and disco", and Time Out's Ella Doyle believed the song to be pop but "reminiscent of disco at points". An up-tempo song, "Dance the Night" begins with violins and theatrical strings, followed by a beat drop. The song incorporates disco elements, acoustic guitars, and funky bass over its synth instrumental. Lipa employs a low yet distinctively feminine voice, which adeptly infuses emotional depth into manufactured-sounding music according to Lucas Martins of Beats Per Minute. Writing for PopMatters, Peter Piatkowski believed its neo-disco pays homage to the classic disco sound of Chic, Ashford & Simpson, and Hal Davis, and the strings and bass resemble the work of Donna Summer and Gloria Gaynor.
The lyrics of "Dance the Night" relate to the plot of Barbie and are about someone who always appears flawless. They detail how the narrator cannot be bothered to cry about a complex relationship and heartbreak when dancing. Lipa asks the listeners to "come along for the ride" and declares that she shines the most when faced with difficult situations. In the chorus, Lipa sings that she will keep dominating the party and "dance the night away", without anybody finding out that she is heartbroken. Despite being emotionally on edge, she continues to make herself look good and does not miss a beat while dancing. Lipa compares the tears streaming down her face to diamonds: "Even when the tears are flowin', they're diamonds on my face."


"Dance the Night" received acclaim according to People's Jack Irvin. Siroky picked the track as "Song of the Week" and believed it could contend for the title of "song of the summer". She thought it would continue the trend of Lipa's songs being successful in playlists. Megan Armstrong of Uproxx opined that "Dance the Night" would receive a high amount of airplay during the summertime. Writing for Paste, Victoria Wasylak said the song could compete with any track on Future Nostalgia. The Sydney Morning Herald's Robert Moran and Doyle found it the embodiment of Lipa's signature sound.
The sound of "Dance the Night" was overwhelmingly compared to Future Nostalgia by music critics, some of whom viewed this positively while others considered it a disappointment. Rebekah Gonzalez of iHeartRadio described the track as "another disco banger", and Tomás Mier of Rolling Stone thought several songs on the soundtrack bore a similarity to the artists' previous material and that this is what made it succeed. Pitchfork's Cat Zhang believed it was a "throwaway product" that was only half saved due to the film usage, and The Independent's Adam White thought the song was a "flat imitation" that did not match the quality of Future Nostalgia.
Critics also commented on Ronson's role as the producer. The Guardian's Elle Hunt believed "Dance the Night" featured the same sophisticated orchestration and meticulous attention to detail that made Ronson a highly sought-after producer; The Observer's Kit Buchan thought he succeeded but did not have "a requisite sprinkling of saccharine camp" for it. Martins praised the strings and thought the song fitted Barbie perfectly, but he opined that it did not reach the same level as Ronson and Lipa's first collaboration, "Electricity" (2018). Piatkowski praised the disco production for defying the bubblegum-pop expectations, and a couple of others thought it was suitable to dance to.


"Dance the Night" was included on critical lists of the best songs of 2023 at number 15 by Billboard and unranked by Variety. Doyle named it the seventh-best pop song of all time in August that year. The song received several awards and nominations. At the 2023 MTV Video Music Awards, it was nominated for Best Pop Video, Best Choreography, and Song of Summer. "Dance the Night" won the Premios 40 Principales for Best International Song that year. At the 66th Annual Grammy Awards in 2024, the song was nominated for Song of the Year and Best Song Written for Visual Media. Other nominations include the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song, the Astra Film and Houston Film Critics Society awards for Best Original Song, and the Global Award for Best Song. It was shortlisted for Best Original Song at the 96th Academy Awards but was not nominated.


"Dance the Night" became Lipa's fourth number-one single on the UK Singles Chart, making her the sixth British female solo artist to achieve four chart-toppers, and received a double platinum certification from the British Phonographic Industry. The song peaked at number six on the US Billboard Hot 100 issued for 16 September 2023, becoming her fifth to reach the top ten. It reached number four on the Canadian Hot 100 issued for 12 August 2023 and became Lipa's fourth top five single. "Dance the Night" was certified 3× platinum in Canada by Music Canada. In Australia, the song charted at number three and received a 4× platinum certification from the Australian Recording Industry Association. It peaked at number five in New Zealand and was certified 2× platinum.
"Dance the Night" reached number three on the Billboard Global 200. Elsewhere, the song charted at number one in Argentina, Belarus, Belgium, Bulgaria, the Commonwealth of Independent States, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Estonia, France, Hungary, Ireland, Israel, Kazakhstan, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands. It peaked at number two in Brazil, Lebanon, Panama, and Paraguay. "Dance the Night" received a diamond certification in France, Lipa's tenth diamond certification in the country, 2× platinum in Poland and Spain, platinum in Belgium, Denmark, Italy, Portugal, Switzerland, and gold in Austria and Greece.


The music video for "Dance the Night" has a pink theme inspired by the Barbie aesthetic. It prominently showcases items from La Vacanza, a clothing collection that Lipa created with Italian fashion designer Donatella Versace. Lipa wore metallic makeup and a high ponytail in it. Her outfit consisted of a pink and glittery cross-strap halter neck top with a keyhole cutout, alongside an ice-blue sparkling mini skirt with a thigh-high slit and butterfly embellishments. She also donned high-sheen metallic stiletto boots and gold jewellery including earrings, rings, bracelets, and a choker. The video features a cameo appearance from Gerwig and clips of Robbie, Issa Rae, and Emma Mackey in the film. It was released alongside the song.
In the video, Lipa gets ready to shoot a music video and learns choreography for it on a pink set, when a large disco ball plummets from the ceiling. According to Ronson, this represents her plans to move away from Future Nostalgia's dance sound with her future music. The words "This Barbie is making a music video" are briefly displayed on-screen. The following scenes intersperse Lipa performing choreographed dances while singing the song on a hot pink stage, near giant perfume bottles, and atop a huge Barbie heel, with scenes of Robbie, Rae, and Mackey dancing at a disco party in the film. At its conclusion, Gerwig gets out of a director's chair to praise Lipa's performance and question what happened to the disco ball as it is required for another music video.
Critics believed the video was playful and fitted the Barbie universe, successfully raising anticipation for the film. Harper's Bazaar Arabia's Pranita Garg thought that everything about it—ranging from the set design and costumes to the cameos—made her anticipate the film's premiere with great excitement. Larisha Paul of Rolling Stone stated that it is "as much glitter and glam as it is escapism and unease". Garg also praised Lipa's outfit, which she believed proved Lipa was a "style icon". Writing for Cosmopolitan, Megan Wallace opined it was worth fawning over and the inclusion of items from La Vacanza would help viewers get in the mood for parties.
"Dance the Night" was included as the primary musical motif in Barbie, featuring in a dance sequence in the film. On 2 August 2023, Eva Mendes shared a clip dancing to the track. Lipa sang one line from the song while opening the 66th Annual Grammy Awards on 4 February 2024, and it played in a video interlude during a costume change at her Glastonbury Festival 2024 set. She performed it in full live for the first time at the Royal Albert Hall on 17 October 2024, which was released on the live album Dua Lipa Live from the Royal Albert Hall (2024).


Credits are adapted from the liner notes of Barbie the Album.


Edward Dando (c. 1803 – 28 August 1832) was a thief who came to public notice in Britain because of his unusual habit of overeating at food stalls and inns, and then revealing that he had no money to pay. Although the fare he consumed was varied, he was particularly fond of oysters, having once eaten 25 dozen of them with a loaf and a half of bread with butter.
Dando began his thefts in about 1826 and was arrested at least as early as 1828. He would often leave a house of correction and go on an eating spree the same day, being arrested straight away and appearing in court within a few days, only to be put back in prison; his normal defence was that he was hungry. On at least one occasion he was placed in solitary confinement after he stole the rations of his fellow prisoners. Most of his activity was in London, although he also spent time in Kent, much of it in the county's prisons. While in Coldbath Fields Prison in August 1832, Dando caught cholera—part of a long-running pandemic—and died.
His death, like his many exploits, was widely and sympathetically reported both in the London daily press and in local newspapers. His name entered into the public argot as a term for someone who eats excessively and does not pay. He was the subject of numerous poems and ballads. In 1837 William Makepeace Thackeray wrote a short story loosely based on Dando; this was made into a play by Edward Stirling. Charles Dickens wrote about Dando and compared him to Alexander the Great.


There is little published information about Dando's early life, although he was born in around 1803 and was a hatter—possibly an apprentice. Numerous sources give his name as Edward Dando and his nationality as British, although the British Museum describes him as "John Dando", an American.
In about 1826 Dando began the practice of eating and drinking at different food sellers without being able to afford the meal. Although out of work, he refused poor relief, saying he despised it because he "had a soul above it". Dando was arrested for his acts of theft at least as early as 1828. On an appearance in court in April 1830, the arresting police officer said Dando had been arrested two years previously after consuming two pots of ale and two pounds (0.9 kg) of rump steak and onions and then refusing to pay. Dando's April 1830 arrest followed his eating 1.75 pounds (0.79 kg) of ham and beef, a half-quartern loaf, seven pats of butter and eleven cups of tea, coming to 3s 6d, at a time when the average weekly wage for agricultural labourers was between eight and twelve shillings. The magistrate sentenced him to one month at the house of correction in Brixton, Surrey, under the Vagrancy Act 1824. Dando spent some time in solitary confinement after he stole bread and beef from his fellow prisoners.
On the day of his release he walked into an oyster shop and ate thirteen dozen (156) oysters and a half-quartern loaf, washed down with five bottles of ginger beer—the ginger beer because, he said, he was troubled with wind. He was arrested and appeared in court; he explained that "I was very peckish, your Worship, after living on a gaol allowance so long, and I thought I'd treat myself to an oyster". This was the second oyster shop he visited that day: in the first he ate oysters and bread to the sum of 3s 6d; the shop owner had kicked him and thrown him out of the shop. The magistrate sentenced Dando to three months in prison, and elected that it should be in the Guildford House of Correction in Surrey, which was considered to keep tougher discipline than Dando had experienced in Brixton. He warned Dando that if he repeated his crime, he faced transportation.


Oysters were cheap in the 1820s and 1830s and a basic food source for the poor, who bought them from oyster stalls or wheelbarrows; in The Pickwick Papers (1836), Dickens has the character Sam Weller relate that "poverty and oysters always seem to go together", continuing "the poorer a place is, the greater call there seems to be for oysters. Look here, sir; here's a oyster-stall to every half-dozen houses. The street's lined vith 'em. Blessed if I don't think that ven a man's wery poor, he rushes out of his lodgings, and eats oysters in reg'lar desperation". In the 1830s oysters could be bought three for a penny, or for up to 1d each. By 1840 Londoners ate 496 million oysters a year—a quarter of which were sold by street sellers.
News of his next arrest and court appearance—in August 1830—was published in The Times, and followed Dando's eating eleven dozen (132) large oysters, a half-quartern loaf and eleven pats of butter without being able to pay for them. His defence was that he was hungry after his release from Guildford prison that day: "I am here at your mercy, and prepared to undergo the punishment that awaits me, whatever it may be; but I again say, that I must satisfy my hunger." The magistrate did not impose a sentence on Dando and allowed him to leave. Outside the court, the owner of the oyster stall threw a bucket of water over him and beat him with his cane, "to the infinite amusement of a throng of persons who had assembled outside and who were aware of the prisoner's transgressions", according to The Times.
Dando remained out of prison until mid-September, when he was again arrested for eating oysters without being able to pay for them. The owner of the oyster shop in Vigo Street, Piccadilly, was suspicious after Dando consumed two dozen oysters. She challenged him to pay and handed him over to the police when he admitted he could not. Dando was again sent to the house of correction.
In early December 1830, when he was back in court again, one newspaper took to calling him "Dando, the celebrated oyster eater". His notoriety was spreading and a number of oyster sellers and food shop owners were present in court to see him. They heard that the day after Dando had been released from prison, he visited a tavern in Knightsbridge and drank sixpennyworth of brandy with two Abernethy biscuits and a pint of ale. He did not pay and was caught after fleeing; he was taken to the police station where the landlord forgave him and he was released. He went to a coffee shop where he consumed bread, butter and coffee worth 1s 6d, then ran off without paying. He went to two further inns and drank two pints of ale and 0.25 imperial pints (0.14 L) of rum. The magistrate was not sympathetic to the innkeepers and said they should have asked for their money in advance of providing the food and drink; Dando was released.
In early January 1831 Dando was, once again, back in court for non-payment for food—on this occasion soup and bread—and once again he was imprisoned. He was back in court at the end of February, in front of the magistrate Sir Richard Birnie. Having drunk two glasses of brandy in one public house in Queen Street before being thrown out, Dando then moved on to a restaurant near Temple Bar. Here he ate two plates of beef à la mode and drank brandy before it was established that he could not pay. Before sentencing him to three months in prison, Birnie asked Dando about his clothing, which had been acquired at prisons; to laughter in the court, Dando explained


The jacket, I think, came from Brixton; the waistcoat ... was bestowed upon me at a similar establishment at Guildford; and the trousers I know I acquired by hard servitude in your Middlesex house of correction. I am indebted to the City authorities for the rest of my wardrobe.
After his release Dando was arrested again and served a second three-month sentence in prison before being released in October 1831. The day after his release he went into an oyster shop in Long Lane, Bermondsey, and consumed nine dozen (108) oysters with a half-quartern loaf of bread and butter. As he had no residence, he was committed to three months' imprisonment at the Guildford House of Correction for vagrancy.
Dando was found drunk in January 1832, having been released from prison four days previously. Covered in mud and with a noticeable black eye, he was imprisoned for eight days for public drunkenness. At the end of March he was again arrested, but was discharged. Some attendees in court gave him money to tell them his story, and his tale was duly reported in the press. He explained that he had begun living by stealing food some six years previously and that, if he had a respectable suit of clothes, he could make his way in the world. He reported that he had received numerous beatings for his actions, including one a few weeks previously at Kennington that he would never forget. He received the punishment when he had eaten four dozen (48) oysters with bread and butter and could not pay; he was dragged through a pond, beaten with cudgels and kicked. He said that the tales of his extravagant eating had been exaggerated, and that the most he had ever eaten was 25 dozen (300) oysters with a loaf and a half of bread with butter; he thought he could probably eat 30 dozen (360) oysters. Dando thought he did no wrong in his actions which he justified by stating:


I refuse to starve in a land of plenty. Instead I shall follow the example of my betters by running into debt without having the means of paying. Why, some men live in great extravagance and luxury, owe money and cheat their creditors, yet they are still considered respectable and honest. I only run into debt to satisfy the craving of hunger, and yet I am despised and beaten.


In June 1832 Dando was arrested in Kent after drinking at an inn in the parish of Chilham without paying; he was imprisoned for vagrancy and a description of him appeared in the press, describing him as 5 feet 7 inches (1.70 m), brown haired with a pale complexion and lame in the right foot.
After spending time in Kent, Dando returned to London and, after a few days, was arrested and sent to Coldbath Fields Prison. He caught cholera there—part of the long-running pandemic—and died on 28 August 1832. His burial was the following day; Dickens later imagined that Dando "was buried in the prison yard and they paved his grave with oyster shells". His death was noted in the press, including The Times and The Observer.


Dando's exploits were widely reported in the press, both in the London dailies and reprinted in local newspapers. The historian Christopher Impey describes much of the reportage as "romanticised"; the academic Ann Featherstone considers their tone "was half-amused, half amazed". Featherstone believes that Dando "had a sharp wit and an easy manner and provided reporters with striking quotes", which helped their sympathetic tone, and his "audacity [which] drew a sneaking admiration from the more cynical newspaper men".


In addition to the newspaper eulogies and obituaries, mostly humorous or whimsical, after Dando's death there were numerous poems and street ballads written about him, as well as several caricatures. Among the ballads published was "The Life and Death of Dando, the Celebrated Oyster Glutton" by James Catnach:


In 1837 William Makepeace Thackeray wrote "The Professor", a short story loosely based on Dando. The short story was made into a play, Dandolo; or, the Last of the Doges, by Edward Stirling in 1838, which was staged at the City of London Theatre.
Dando's name entered common argot as a word to describe someone who ate at food outlets and did not pay. An 1878 dictionary of slang terms described a dando as "a great eater, who cheats at hotels, eating shops, oyster-cellars, etc, from a person of that name who lived many years ago, and who was an enormous oyster eater". In 1850 the Whig politician Thomas Macaulay wrote "I was a Dando at a pastry-cook's, and then at an oyster shop", although he did not clarify whether he just ate too much, or whether he also did not pay. In The Book of Aphorisms, published by the Scottish writer Robert Macnish in 1834, Dando appears four times, including in aphorism 405, which states that oysters should be eaten raw: "depend upon it, this is the approved method among gourmands. My lamented friend, the late Dando, never swallowed them in any other form".
The academic Rebecca Stott considers that Dando is often portrayed "as a kind of folk hero, transgressing the law to follow his singular passions. A kind of oyster-eating pirate living outside the law." During the period when Dando was active, Britain's social and economic situation was in upheaval, with high unemployment, poverty and civil unrest such as the Swing Riots. Featherstone, commenting on Dando's "I refuse to starve in a land of plenty" philosophy, sees the background of the Swing Riots as pertinent to his lifestyle. In 1867 the Tory-leaning literary journal Fraser's Magazine wrote that it thought Dando's philosophy had been plagiarised by the Tory politician Benjamin Disraeli. The journal quoted Dando: "oysters were meant for mankind; don't talk to me of a property acquired by paying for them. So long as oysters exist, I will eat as many as I see fit" and compared this philosophy unfavourably with what they perceived to be Disraeli's flexible political positions: "Principles were meant for mankind; don't talk to me of a property acquired by believing in them. So long as principles exist, I will use them in any way, profess them or disclaim them, as I see fit."
The writer Charles Dickens, a great lover of oysters and oyster culture, kept up a correspondence with the American educator Cornelius Felton. In a letter from July 1842, Dickens gave Felton a potted history of Dando, in which he wrote "he has been known to eat twenty dozen at one sitting, and would have eaten forty, if the truth had not flashed upon the shopkeeper". In his literary magazine All the Year Round Dickens compared Dando with Alexander the Great, writing that "Alexander wept at having no more worlds to conquer, and Dando died because there were no more oyster-shops to victimise." One anonymous writer chose to celebrate Dando with the lines:


Dish-bearers (often called seneschals by historians) and butlers (or cup-bearers) were thegns who acted as personal attendants of kings in Anglo-Saxon England. Royal feasts played an important role in consolidating community and hierarchy among the elite, and dish-bearers and butlers served the food and drinks at these meals. Thegns were members of the aristocracy, leading landowners who occupied the third lay (non-religious) rank in English society after the king and ealdormen. Dish-bearers and butlers probably also carried out diverse military and administrative duties as required by the king. Some went on to have illustrious careers as ealdormen, but most never rose higher than thegn.

Dish-bearers and butlers in Anglo-Saxon England


The chief attendants at Anglo-Saxon royal feasts were dish-bearers and butlers or cup-bearers. Dish-bearer in Medieval Latin (ML) is discifer or dapifer, and in Old English (OE) discþegn, also discðegn and discþen (dish-thegn). The French medievalist Alban Gautier states: "Both discifer and dapifer literally mean 'dish-bearer', but in the first case 'dish' should be understood as the disc-shaped object (discus), whereas in the second it refers to the culinary preparation that was inside (dapes)." The Dictionary of Medieval Latin from British Sources (DMLBS) defines discifer as dish-bearer or sewer, and dapifer as an attendant at meals, a sewer or a steward. Historians often translate discifer as seneschal, but Gautier objects that the word seneschal is not recorded in England before the Norman Conquest. According to the twelfth-century chronicler, John of Worcester, in 946 King Edmund I was killed trying to protect his dapifer from assault by an outlaw. The editors of John's chronicle translate dapifer as 'steward', but the historian Ann Williams prefers 'seneschal'. Tenth- and eleventh-century charters are sometimes attested by several dapiferi or disciferi, suggesting teams of officers, whereas the will of Eadred mentions one discðegn and several stigweard ('subordinate officers', literally 'guardians of the enclosure'), who may have been the head and his deputies. Butler or cup-bearer in ML is pincerna, OE byrele (or birele, byrle, biriele). An officer in charge of drinks was generally described as a pincerna and one in dealing with food as a discifer or dapifer, and Gautier calls them "officers of the mouth".


Royal feasts played an important part in consolidating community and hierarchy in the Anglo-Saxon elite. Dish-bearers and cup-bearers (butlers), who served at the table, played a major role in helping to make them political successes. Some feasts were compulsory drinking parties, such as the dinner held by Bishop Æthelwold at Abingdon for King Eadred in about 954: the King ordered that the mead should flow plentifully, the doors were locked so that no one could leave, and Northumbrian thegns in the King's entourage got drunk. There may have been teams of dish-bearers and butlers, under the supervision of two of them. They were probably versatile servants of the king, who carried out diverse administrative and military duties as required.
In the later Anglo-Saxon period, queens and æthelings (sons of kings) also had dish-bearers. In the early 990s, when King Æthelred the Unready had several infant children, Æfic was dish-bearer to the æthelings, suggesting that they jointly had a household with one dish-bearer. When they grew up, each would have had their own retinue with a dish-bearer, and probably a butler. In 1014 Æthelred's eldest son Æthelstan left eight hides of land and a horse to his discþene in his will. The dish-bearer of Æthelstan's younger brother Edmund (the future King Edmund Ironside) attested a charter at a time when Æthelstan was still alive, showing that kings' younger sons also had dish-bearers.


Dish-bearers and butlers had a high status in the hierarchy of the court. The offices were held by thegns, who were the third lay rank of the aristocracy. To be a thegn, a man had to at least be a substantial local landowner, and he could be a major magnate owning estates in several counties. He would be expected to perform military and administrative functions. A few were promoted to ealdorman, the top level of the lay aristocracy below the king. According to the historian Simon Keynes, "collectively, the thegns were the very fabric of social and political order". Kings and ealdormen could exploit their positions, "but in the final analysis it was the thegns who counted".
The order of attestations in charters was an indication of status, and dish-bearers and butlers usually attested charters above ordinary thegns. In King Eadred's will, the discðegne, hræglðegne and biriele are listed immediately after the ealdormen and bishops. No dish-bearer or butler witnessed charters of two successive kings with mention of his office, suggesting that his position was a personal one which ended with the king's death. The butler and dish-bearer of Edith, wife of Edward the Confessor, remained close to her when the King died and did not move to serve the new queen.


The main evidence for the posts of dish-bearer and butler is provided by witness lists to charters. The offices may have been copied from the equivalent Frankish offices, but the sources for the early Anglo-Saxon period are few and problematic and the evidence is too limited to be certain. Between 741 and 809 pincernae attested charters of Kent, the Hwicce and Mercia, and in 785 Eatta attested a charter of Offa of Mercia as "dux et regis discifer" (ealdorman and king's dish-bearer), but all later attestations of dish-bearers and butlers are in West Saxon and English charters. In Wessex in the early ninth century, members of great families sought positions as dish-bearers and butlers, and Alfred the Great's maternal grandfather was a famous pincerna. In Alfred's own reign, the offices could be a step in an illustrious noble career. Alfred's pincerna in 892, Sigewulf, later became an ealdorman and died fighting against the Vikings at the Battle of the Holme in 902.
In the tenth century, most dish-bearers and butlers were thegns of lesser status who never rose higher, but some members of leading families held the post before becoming ealdormen. Wulfgar and Odda were dish-bearers and leading thegns under King Æthelstan, and were promoted to ealdorman by his successor, Edmund. In 956/57, Ælfheah, who was later to be ealdorman of central Wessex, attested one charter as discifer and another as cyninges [king's] discðegn. Æthelmær, a leading magnate, founder of two abbeys and descendant of King Æthelred I, was discþen to Æthelred the Unready. Æthelmaær's father was Æthelweard, Ealdorman of the Western Provinces, and when he died in 998 Æthelmaær did not succeed as ealdorman, perhaps because he preferred to retain his influential position at court. Under Edward the Confessor, members of the families who held most of the earldoms, those of Godwin and Leofric, did not become dish-bearers or butlers, and the positions may have become less attractive to the greatest aristocrats when they were more powerful than the court. In the 1060s, a new rank of staller was created between thegns and earls, and men with this rank could hold the office of dish-bearer.


King Edward III of England led a campaign in the Duchy of Brittany in 1342 and 1343. England, at war with France since 1337 in the Hundred Years' War, had sided with John of Montfort's faction in the Breton Civil War soon after it broke out in 1341. The French king, Philip VI, supported Charles of Blois, who was his nephew. By August 1342 Charles had captured John and reduced his partisans back to just one fortification, Brest in western Brittany. An English fleet broke the blockade of Brest on 18 August. On 30 September a numerically inferior English army inflicted a heavy defeat on the French at the battle of Morlaix.
Edward was supposed to arrive with the next contingent of his army shortly after the first, but had severe difficulties gathering sufficient shipping. On 6 October he abandoned his siege train and set sail with those troops he was able to embark onto the available ships. They reached Brittany on 26 October after a storm-wracked three-week passage and Edward advanced on the major Breton town of Vannes. The naval component went ahead, was mauled by a force of mercenary galleys and then failed in an attempt to take Vannes by a coup de main. The land component was delayed building siege engines before attempting to storm the town on 29 November. The newly reinforced French garrison repelled this assault and a siege began.
English raiding parties devastated large parts of eastern Brittany, but attempts to reinforce or supply Edward from England failed. A large French army was raised with difficulty and advanced to Malestroit, 18 miles (29 km) from the English camp. Philip moved his court to Brittany and entered into negotiations with Edward. The Truce of Malestroit, which was supposed to pause hostilities for three-and-a-half years, was agreed on 19 January 1343. It is widely seen as favouring the English. Edward arrived back in England on 1 March.


During the early 14th century Brittany was a province of France, but while the dukes of Brittany were vassals of the French kings they governed the duchy as independent rulers. Nevertheless, when the Hundred Years' War broke out in 1337 between France and England the Duke of Brittany, John III, fought alongside his feudal lord: the King of France, Philip VI. John died on 30 April 1341, leaving a disputed succession, with both his niece, Joan of Penthièvre, and his younger half-brother, John of Montfort, claiming the dukedom. Joan transmitted her title to her husband, who was Charles of Blois, a nephew of the king of France. John had the stronger legal claim but the aristocracy and clergy knew little about him and mostly preferred Charles. John's more limited support came largely from the lower levels of society, especially in the towns.
Correctly suspecting that John was negotiating with the English, Philip had the Parlement of Paris – a judicial rather than legislative body, which had been hearing the case in its usual long drawn out manner – declare Charles of Blois the legitimate successor to John III. It complied on 7 September. Philip now found the idea of having a relative as the duke attractive, as it would bring the traditionally semi-autonomous province more firmly under royal control; he therefore despatched an army to support Charles. This army overran all of eastern Brittany apart from Rennes and captured John of Montfort. John's wife, Joanna of Flanders, was in Rennes with their two-year-old son (also named John) and the ducal treasury when news of John's capture arrived. She recalled the Montfortist field army, took command and moved to Hennebont. From there Joanna retained control of most of western Brittany, setting up her son as the faction's figurehead and heir to his father's claim to the duchy. She despatched her senior counsellor, Amaury of Clisson, to Edward III of England, with a large sum in cash, to encourage rapid English military intervention.


By the end of 1341 the Montfortist cause was being supported by Edward III as an extension of the war with France. This was the start of Edward's provincial strategy, by which he sided with French vassals of Philip in their disagreements with him: this promoted Edward's claim to be the rightful king of France and potentially created military allies. Strategically Edward had the opportunity to set up a ruler in Brittany at least partially under his control, which would provide access to Breton ports, greatly aiding England's naval war and giving ready entry to France for English armies. However, English reinforcements took a long time to reach Brittany.
A force of 234 men arrived under Sir Walter Mauny, a member of Edward's household, in May 1342 and relieved Hennebont where Joanna was being besieged by a French army. Edward planned to land in Brittany himself in June with a substantial force, but had extreme difficulty in assembling ships. The Admiral of the North Robert Morley applied draconian measures to impress and retain ships; however, they took time to have effect. The Earl of Northampton was supposed to sail from Portsmouth on 8 July 1342 in command of the first contingent of the English army, 1,350 men, but on that date not a single requisitioned ship was present. Morley's heavy-handed policy of threats and confiscations eventually bore fruit, and 440 ships were assembled, split between several ports with the largest group in the Solent. Even this fleet would have to make several trips if it were to carry the total of 6,000 men Edward wished to deploy to Brittany, and contrary winds caused the departure of the first English echelon to be repeatedly put back.
In May 1342 Clement VI became pope. He was strongly pro-French and had previously been one of Philip's senior advisers. He despatched two cardinals to attempt a permanent settlement of the Anglo-French war; they were well received by Philip in June, but Edward would not even allow them to cross the Channel. Instead he continued to gather ships and troops. Meanwhile, the French strongly reinforced their army in Brittany; Montfortist garrisons surrendered or slipped away to the west in the face of the huge French military superiority. By July Joanna had been forced back to the far west of Brittany and was besieged in the port of Brest, the only remaining fortified place still held by her faction. Charles of Blois and a large army had invested the town and mercenary galleys, hired from Genoa, blockaded it from the sea.


By mid-August there were 140 transports in Portsmouth, with 120 warships to escort them, waiting for a fair wind. Charles was aware that the English fleet was on the verge of sailing and sent twenty-one French vessels – galleys and other oared vessels – to trap those English ships waiting to leave the Solent. The wind shifted and the English sailed for Brest on 14 and 15 August. The French squadron despatched by Charles arrived off the Solent a little later, losing their chance of trapping the English fleet. Instead they razed Portsmouth and devastated the area around Southampton. Brest was on the brink of surrender when the English arrived on 18 August. Their fleet took the Genoese by surprise, defeated them and burnt most of their ships. The 1,350 fighting men carried by the fleet constituted a force far smaller than that of the French besieging Brest. Nevertheless, seeing so many English ships crowded into the area of sheltered water off the port known as the Brest Roads and the English vanguard disembarking onto the beach, they expected an attack by a vast host. Charles promptly broke off the siege, abandoned western Brittany and withdrew 70 miles (100 km) to Guingamp. There he concentrated his forces and called up local levies.
A few days after landing, the English were reinforced by 800 men under Robert of Artois, a disaffected French nobleman, and absorbed several small English forces and an unknown number of John of Montfort's Breton partisans. This force marched 30 miles (50 km) from Brest to Morlaix, a port on the north coast of Brittany with strong fortifications and a secure harbour, and laid siege to it. Morlaix would make a good disembarkation point for the next echelon of English troops under Edward III. Edward's contingent was still in England waiting for the ships which had transported Northampton's echelon to return. The French mistakenly believed Edward's army would be used in northern France, probably disembarking in Picardy. A French army was gathered to confront this imagined threat, including many men transferred from Brittany. Charles became aware his force greatly outnumbered the English, despite the detachments to Picardy, and took his army west in an attempt to relieve Morlaix. He was defeated on 30 September at the battle of Morlaix, suffering heavy losses.


The 260 English ships which had disembarked Northampton's expedition at Brest on 18 August, together with those which had landed Robert of Artois's reinforcements were supposed to immediately sail back to England. It was envisaged that they would pick up the 3,000 additional men whom Edward had gathered, and return to Brittany by early September. The ships' captains, frustrated at having been requisitioned for up to three months and aware there was little left of the sailing season, deserted en route. When the rest arrived at the English ports there was not enough transport capacity for even half of Edward's force. On 6 October Edward abandoned his siege train on the beach at Sandwich and set sail with those troops he was able to embark onto the available shipping. They reached Brittany on 26 October after a storm-wracked passage.


Edward concentrated the English and Montfortist forces at Brest and called a council of war. It was agreed to move on the major town of Vannes and attempt to capture it. Vannes was the second most populous settlement in Brittany, and had a good harbour and strong walls. From Vannes a strong detachment could control much of southern Brittany. On 7 November both the navy and the army set off. The fleet was depleted even further from the one which had arrived two weeks earlier; in the interim another 186 ships had deserted. Their masters and crews were unhappy at not being paid and at being forced out to sea in dangerous winter weather. Those left sailed along the south coast of Brittany under the command of Robert of Artois, probably carrying the 800 men who had sailed with him from England.
Robert was a reckless commander and he sailed past Vannes into the Bay of Bourgneuf, south west of Nantes. There he attacked a galley squadron overwintering at Beauvoir-sur-Mer. The galley crews were ready and were able to man their vessels before the English reached them. In the ensuing fighting the English came off much the worse, suffering many casualties and losing several ships. The surviving ships sailed back to Vannes, enduring another winter storm en route. An attempt to take the town with a surprise attack came close to success but was defeated, with Robert being fatally wounded. The attack's main effect was to alert the French, who reinforced the garrison to 300 men and assigned an experienced commander.
In England the King's Council attempted to organise a further fleet to carry supplies and reinforcements. Approximately 1,400 men were assembled, but only 56 vessels were mustered. These sailed on or after 3 November carrying 600 men, but were driven ashore in the Isles of Scilly by further storms. They and the 800 men who had not sailed waited for a break in the weather, fruitlessly: they were finally stood down in February 1343. Only the earls of Pembroke and Gloucester, with their immediate entourages, are recorded as having reached Brittany. The rest of the council abandoned attempts to cross the Channel in winter and agreed to reassemble with an army of 6,000 – the large majority much-needed infantry – on the unrealistically early date of 1 March.


The main English army marched unopposed some 120 miles (190 km) through southern Brittany, halting 12 miles (19 km) from Vannes for a week to make new siege engines – replacements for those the English fleet had been unable to transport. On 29 November the Anglo-Breton army reached Vannes and attempted to take it by storm. The newly reinforced French garrison repelled this assault and a siege began. Vannes suffered from a severe and deadly outbreak of illness in 1342, which may have raised hopes that it would fall rapidly. The siege did not require the entire army and large detachments were sent on chevauchees across eastern Brittany to devastate the region and capture the fortified places. One expedition, commanded by the Earl of Salisbury, razed the outskirts of Dinan and devastated the area around Dol, 100 miles (160 km) north east of Vannes. Ploërmel, Malestroit and Redon were captured and Nantes, the ducal capital, was besieged.
Increasing numbers of Breton knights and lords switched their allegiance to the Montfortist cause. However, there were fewer than 5,000 English troops in Brittany, and the term of service of many was running out; it is known that 400 Welsh archers left the army on 17 December for this reason. The English were supplemented by an unknown number of Montfortist partisans; the French believed there were many such men, but their reliability and enthusiasm were uncertain. In particular the Anglo-Breton force was short of infantry. No food supplies were arriving for Edward by sea, and although he sent out columns over a broad area, foraging in winter yielded thin returns. Edward's army was in difficulty.


The French were perturbed by Edward's landing in Brittany, when he was expected to invade further east, and by his taking the field so late in the season, when their armies had been disbanded. During November they struggled to put together an army and to accumulate sufficient supplies to feed and equip it. The army was based at the main French supply centre of Angers with King Philip's oldest son, John, Duke of Normandy, in command. There are no contemporary figures on the size of the French army, but it was several times larger than the Anglo-Breton force. It was 14 December before it commenced the 50 miles (80 km) journey west to the Breton border. Edward was sufficiently alarmed to invite the two cardinals he had brushed off in the summer to present their credentials. They had been observing events from Avranches, just over the Breton border, and were allowed no closer than Malestroit, 18 miles (29 km) from the main English camp. Edward suspected that everything they saw would be passed on to the French, and took great care not to betray the small size and poor state of his army.
Once started, the French advance was rapid; it was Christmas Day (25 December) 1342 when the French relieved Nantes, just in time to foil a plot to open the gates to the English. Redon, Ploërmel and Malestroit were recaptured during early January and the French encamped around the latter. The two cardinals were probably in Malestroit when it fell to the French, on or shortly after 10 January. Philip VI set up his court at Redon and also sent emissaries to the cardinals at Malestroit. By 19 January 1343 the terms of a truce had been agreed and it was sealed. The break in hostilities was to last until 29 September 1346 and the historian Jonathan Sumption describes the terms as "astonishingly favourable" to the English. Both France and England were to retain the territory they held when the truce came into effect: this applied to Brittany, Gascony, Flanders and Scotland. The English garrisoned the fortified places they held in Brittany. Vannes was to be held by the papacy for the duration of the truce, Philip was to immediately free John of Montfort and there was a general exchange of prisoners. Both monarchs pledged to negotiate in Avignon, mediated by Clement, a treaty to permanently end the war. In reality each saw the truce as a mere pause and neither intended to negotiate in good faith; the truce had only been agreed because each king felt it was beneficial to him. Edward left for England, enduring another winter storm which scattered the fleet and sank several ships, and arrived on 1 March.


Philip believed that with the fighting ended, all the English would leave for home. He was mistaken, and the Breton Civil War ground on as a disjointed and inconclusive series of petty sieges, skirmishes and truces, with the English and their Montfortist allies holding almost the whole of Brittany by 1345. Late in 1343 Montfortists in Vannes rose against the Pope's authority, expelled his garrison and delivered the town to the English, who held it until the end of the Breton Civil War in 1364. John of Montfort was not released until September, despite the stipulation of the treaty. Brest remained in English hands for 30 years; as the Hundred Years' War continued it was used to support forces guarding the passage of English ships to and from Gascony and to facilitate descents on the French-held parts of Brittany. The fighting continued much as before in Gascony; by August 1345 the region had reverted to full-scale war with a major Anglo-Gascon offensive.
Both the French and the English sent delegations to a peace conference at Avignon sponsored by Clement. Procedural disagreements delayed its start until October 1344. The proposals made by each side were unacceptable to the other, and the English ended the discussion in November. Edward was planning another major invasion of France long before the truce was due to expire in September 1346. He renounced it in June 1345, and personally led another expedition to France in July 1346, this time landing in Normandy.


The Mount Edziza volcanic complex (MEVC) in British Columbia, Canada, has a history of volcanism that spans more than 7 million years. It has taken place during five cycles of magmatic activity, each producing less volcanic material than the previous one. Volcanism during these cycles has created several types of volcanoes, including cinder cones, stratovolcanoes, subglacial volcanoes, shield volcanoes and lava domes. The roughly 1,000 km2 (400 sq mi) volcanic plateau forming the base of the MEVC originated from the successive eruptions of highly mobile lava flows. Volcanic rocks such as basalt, trachybasalt, benmoreite, tristanite, mugearite, trachyte and rhyolite were deposited by multiple eruptions of the MEVC; the latter six rock types are products of varying degrees of magmatic differentiation in underground magma reservoirs. Renewed effusive volcanism could block local streams with lava flows whereas renewed explosive volcanism could disrupt air traffic with volcanic ash across parts of northwestern Canada. At least 10 distinct flows of obsidian were produced by volcanism of the MEVC, some of which were exploited by indigenous peoples in prehistoric times to make tools and weaponry.
The first magmatic cycle took place between 7.5 and 6 million years ago and is represented by the Raspberry, Little Iskut and Armadillo formations, each of which is the product of a different eruptive period. Three distinct periods of eruptive activity also characterized the second magmatic cycle between 6 and 1 million years ago; they are represented by the Nido, Spectrum and Pyramid geological formations. The third magmatic cycle about 1 million years ago is represented by the Ice Peak, Pillow Ridge and Edziza geological formations, each of which is also the product of a distinct eruptive period. Three distinct periods of eruptive activity also characterized the fourth magmatic cycle between 0.8 and 0.2 million years ago which are represented by the Arctic Lake, Klastline and Kakiddi geological formations. The fifth magmatic cycle began at least 20,000 years ago and may be ongoing; the single distinct eruptive period of this magmatic cycle is represented by the Big Raven Formation.

Volcanism of the Mount Edziza volcanic complex


The Mount Edziza volcanic complex is a linear group of volcanoes in northwestern British Columbia, Canada. It is about 65 km (40 mi) long and 20 km (12 mi) wide, consisting of several stratovolcanoes, shield volcanoes, subglacial volcanoes, lava domes and cinder cones. This volcanic complex includes a broad, steep-sided, intermontane plateau that rises from a base elevation of 760 or 816 metres (2,500 or 2,675 feet). A northerly-trending, elliptical, shield volcano consisting of multiple flat-lying lava flows forms the plateau which is capped with several smaller volcanic structures of the complex. Four central volcanoes of felsic composition overlie the plateau, the highest of which is Mount Edziza with an elevation of 2,786 m (9,140 ft). The plateau is subdivided into three smaller plateaus; from north to south they are the Big Raven, Kitsu and Arctic Lake plateaus.
The MEVC is one of the largest volcanic complexes in North America, covering about 1,000 km2 (390 sq mi) and comprising about 665 cubic kilometres (160 cubic miles) of volcanic material. After Level Mountain, the MEVC is the largest eruptive centre in the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province which extends from northwestern British Columbia northwards through Yukon into easternmost Alaska. This volcanic province is the most volcanically active area in Canada, having undergone at least three eruptions in the last 500 years. Volcanism of the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province began 20 million years ago, resulting from rifting of the North American Cordillera driven by changes in relative plate motion between the North American and Pacific plates.


The eruption rate of the MEVC has varied throughout its long volcanic history. When the volcanic complex started erupting at least 7.4 million years ago, it increased the rate of magmatism in the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province from 100,000 to 300,000 cubic metres (3,500,000 to 10,600,000 cubic feet) per year. A period of quiescence appears to have followed at the MEVC and elsewhere in the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province between about 4 and 3 million years ago. Magmatism of the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province has since rebounded to a relatively constant rate of 100,000 cubic metres (3,500,000 cubic feet) per year, significantly less than that estimated for the Cascade Volcanic Arc of western North America. The MEVC has undergone an eruption roughly every 379 years throughout the current Holocene epoch based on the number of demonstrable Holocene eruptions in the last 11,000 years, of which there are at least 29. This makes the MEVC the most active eruptive centre in Canada throughout the Holocene; its relatively frequent eruptions also make it one of the most hazardous volcanic complexes in Canada.
The most voluminous rocks produced by volcanism of the MEVC are mafic alkali basalts and hawaiites which represent about 60% of the total eruptive volume. Felsic peralkaline rocks such as trachyte, comendite and pantellerite were also produced by volcanism of the MEVC and represent about 40% of the total eruptive volume, resulting from prolonged fractional crystallization of mantle-derived basaltic magma in magma chambers. Peralkaline volcanism with similar chemistry, mineralogy and isotopic composition has also occurred at the Rainbow Range in central British Columbia, as well as at the Afar Triangle in East Africa and in the Great Basin of western North America. Volcanic rocks of intermediate composition such as benmoreite, trachybasalt, mugearite and tristanite were produced in relatively small volumes; they were the result of alkali basaltic magma having pooled in large subterranean magma chambers on a shorter timespan. The chemistry and petrography of MEVC rocks is indicative of bimodal volcanism, a phenomenon associated with continental rifting.


Volcanism of the MEVC has taken place during five cycles of magmatic activity in the last 8 million years, each of which began with the effusion of alkali basalt and culminated with the eruption of felsic magma. Each cycle was less productive than the previous one, the first magmatic cycle depositing about 290 cubic kilometres (70 cubic miles) of volcanic material. Eruptions during the second and third magmatic cycles deposited about 255 cubic kilometres (61 cubic miles) and 97 cubic kilometres (23 cubic miles) of volcanic material, respectively. Volcanism during the fourth magmatic cycle deposited roughly 15 cubic kilometres (3.6 cubic miles) of volcanic material whereas the fifth cycle has produced an insignificant volume of volcanic material. The fourth and fifth magmatic cycles could possibly be part of a larger cycle that may be ongoing.


The first magmatic cycle was restricted to the Late Miocene between 7.5 and 6 million years ago. Three distinct eruptive periods occurred during this magmatic cycle, each producing different types of volcanic rocks. The first eruptive period is represented by alkali basalt and hawaiite flows of the Raspberry Formation. They rest directly on older rocks of the Stikinia terrane and are exposed along the Mess Creek Escarpment. The Little Iskut Formation represents the second period of eruptive activity, consisting mainly of trachybasalt flows and breccia that overlie the Raspberry Formation. Eruptions of the Little Iskut period immediately followed or may have been coeval with those during Raspberry time due to the lack of an erosion surface between the two formations. The third eruptive period is represented by alkali basalt, comendite and trachyte of the Armadillo Formation which overlies the Little Iskut Formation.


The Raspberry eruptive period 7.4 million years ago began with the effusion of basaltic lava flows on an erosion surface from near Raspberry Pass. More than 83 cubic kilometres (20 cubic miles) of lava flows were extruded in rapid succession, forming a Late Miocene shield volcano. They reached a maximum thickness of more than 300 m (980 ft) near their source to only a few metres thick at their terminus. Disruption of the local drainage system by lava flows originating from a cluster of small satellitic cones southeast of the Raspberry shield volcano resulted in the formation of so-named Raspberry Lake in the upper Little Iskut River valley. At least 25 lava flows were extruded during Raspberry time, each reaching thicknesses of 1 to 30 m (3.3 to 98.4 ft). By the time the Raspberry eruptive period had come to an end, the Raspberry shield volcano covered an area of at least 775 km2 (299 sq mi) and reached an elevation of nearly 2,100 m (6,900 ft). Volcanism during Raspberry time did not have long periods of quiescence as suggested by the lack of fluvial layers between individual Raspberry lava flows.
About 119 cubic kilometres (29 cubic miles) of volcanic material were deposited by the Raspberry eruptions, making the Raspberry Formation the second most voluminous geological formation of the first magmatic cycle. After the Raspberry eruptive period ceased, Raspberry Lake had already begun to erode a notch along the eastern edge of the lava dam. The Raspberry shield volcano and associated satellitic cones and ash beds had also begun to erode away, but the valleys and lowlands remained filled with thick piles of basaltic lava flows which later were overlain by the much younger Mount Edziza and Spectrum Range volcanoes. In addition to forming the base of the Mess Creek Escarpment, Raspberry basalt is also exposed along the bases of Artifact and Obsidian ridges, as well as south and southeast of Mount Edziza.
Potassium–argon dating of volcanic rocks produced during this eruptive period has yielded a wide variety of ages. This includes 11.4 ± 1.5 million years, 8.4 ± 0.4 million years and 6.4 ± 0.3 million years for Raspberry hawaiite and 6.1 ± 0.4 million years and 5.5 ± 0.1 million years for Raspberry alkali basalt, the first of which is anomalously old and has the largest error. Relatively large atmospheric contents and pervasive carbonate alteration in Raspberry rocks is likely the cause of the large spread in ages. A minimum age for the timing of Raspberry volcanism is 7.4–6.2 million years.


The Little Iskut eruptive period 7.2 million years ago began beneath the waters of Raspberry Lake south of present day Raspberry Pass. Interactions between the lake water and the erupting magma resulted in several violent phreatic explosions, the larger explosions depositing ash and granular particles over much of the lake bed. The phreatic explosions were followed by the eruption of trachybasalt flows which began forming a lava dome on the bed of Raspberry Lake; this lava dome eventually grew above lake level from continued volcanic eruptions to form a small volcanic island. Renewed volcanism then transformed this small island into a broad shield volcano that overlapped with the northern shoreline of Raspberry Lake. By this time much of the original lake had been displaced with shattered rock fragments formed by the quenching and fracturing of lava from thermal shock. Subsequent eruptions of the Little Iskut shield volcano produced thick, irregular, randomly jointed lava flows that travelled down its gentle eastern, southern and western flanks. Lava flowing down the eastern and southern flanks entered the shrinking remnants of Raspberry Lake whereas lava travelling down the western flank merged with the older Raspberry shield volcano.
The Little Iskut eruptions were much less voluminous than those of the Raspberry eruptive period, depositing only 14.6 cubic kilometres (3.5 cubic miles) of volcanic material; this makes the Little Iskut Formation the least voluminous geological formation of the first magmatic cycle. Erosional remnants of trachybasalt flows from the Little Iskut eruptive period are exposed in a 10 km (6.2 mi) wide area northeast of the Spectrum Range where they comprise parts of Artifact Ridge and Obsidian Ridge. These flows range in thickness from about 300 m (980 ft) near the centre of Artifact Ridge to 90 m (300 ft) around the perimeter, suggesting their source was located near Artifact Ridge. This is supported by the existence of dikes along the northern side of Artifact Creek valley which may have been feeders for the overlying trachybasalt flows. A single potassium–argon date of 7.2 ± 0.3 million years has been obtained from Little Iskut trachybasalt.


The next eruptive period, the Armadillo period, occurred between 7 and 6 million years ago. It began with explosive activity from a vent at Cartoona Ridge which produced 10 km (6.2 mi) long ash flows and an air-fall pumice deposit that covers an area of several hundred square kilometres. This was followed by the effusion of viscous trachyte and rhyolite lava which piled up around the vent area to produce steep-sided, overlapping domes. As the lava domes continued to grow their slopes became oversteepened, forcing lava to move further away from the vent area. Eventually bulbous mounds of trachyte and rhyolite covered much of the southeastern highlands of the MEVC; these domes were subsequently eroded to form clastic deposits.


Rapid evacuation of a shallow magma chamber nearly 8 km (5.0 mi) south of Cartoona Ridge resulted in the formation of the 3 km (1.9 mi) wide Armadillo Peak caldera. Fractures in the roof of the magma chamber provided passageways for trachyte magma to reach the subsiding caldera floor, resulting in the formation of lava lakes inside the newly-formed depression. Larger volumes of lava eventually spilled over the caldera rim to produce a nearly 13 km (8.1 mi) long, 460 m (1,510 ft) thick sequence of trachyte and rhyolite flows which extends to the west. A 180 m (590 ft) thick remnant of trachyte flows that pooled inside the caldera forms the 2,194 m (7,198 ft) high summit of Armadillo Peak which lies within its southern limit. Erosion in the middle of the caldera has exposed several granite intrusions that are in the form of sills, dikes and irregular subvolcanic masses.
Other volcanic centres were active during the Armadillo eruptive period. Tadeda Peak and the IGC Centre, both satellitic vents of the Armadillo Peak caldera, produced trachyte and rhyolite. Alkali basalt, hawaiite and trachybasalt flows erupted from Sezill Volcano and the Little Iskut shield volcano, many of which are exposed along the Mess Creek Escarpment. The thickest sections of Armadillo basalt flows are exposed in Sezill Creek canyon, Kadeya Creek canyon and near the southwestern end of Raspberry Pass where they reach thicknesses of up to 180 m (590 ft). Individual flows of alkali basalt are thin and voluminous, suggesting they were highly fluid at the time of their eruption.
The Armadillo eruptions deposited 159 cubic kilometres (38 cubic miles) of volcanic material, making the Armadillo Formation the most voluminous geological formation of the first magmatic cycle. An anomalously old potassium–argon date of 10.2 ± 1.4 million years has been obtained from Armadillo comendite. Potassium–argon dates more in line with the volcanic stratigraphy include 6.9 ± 0.3 million years and 6.1 ± 0.1 million years from comenditic ash flows, 6.9 ± 0.3 million years from comenditic glass and 6.5 ± 0.2 million years, 6.3 ± 0.5 million years, 6.2 ± 0.1 million years and 6.1 ± 0.2 million years from hawaiite.


The second magmatic cycle took place between 6 and 1 million years ago during the Pliocene and Early Pleistocene. Like the first magmatic cycle, it is subdivided into three distinct eruptive periods. The first eruptive period is represented by alkali basalt and hawaiite flows of the Nido Formation. They are exposed along the Mess Creek Escarpment and appear to have originated from several separate eruptive centres along the eastern margin of the MEVC. The Spectrum Formation represents the second period of eruptive activity; it is almost entirely underlain by the Nido Formation and consists mostly of trachyte and rhyolite. The third eruptive period is represented by trachyte, comendite and pantellerite of the Pyramid Formation which overlies the Nido Formation.


The Nido eruptive period was a long episode of volcanic activity between 6 and 4 million years ago that involved the effusion of highly mobile, fluid basaltic lava flows from multiple, widely spaced eruptive centres; these eruptive centres included at least six major volcanoes and many more smaller volcanic cones. The lava flows are mineralogically and geomorphologically similar to those of the Raspberry Formation, having buried lag gravels and travelled into valleys where they disrupted the drainage system to form lava-dammed lakes. Volcanism of the Nido eruptive period was limited to the northern and southern ends of the MEVC, such that the lava flows formed two separate lava fields, one at each end of the volcanic complex. The northern lava field is represented by the Tenchen Member while the southern lava field is represented by the Kounugu Member; they are separated by the Armadillo Highlands which acted as a topographic barrier at the time of their eruption. Volcanic activity in both lava fields occurred more or less simultaneously as shown by the existence of Armadillo clasts in glacial deposits that were overridden by lava flows in each field. In 1984, Canadian volcanologist Jack Souther described the lava flows from this period of activity as the remains of composite shield volcanoes.


Three major volcanoes of the Tenchen Member were active during the Nido eruptive period, all of which have since been reduced to eroded remnants. Alpha Peak was the oldest of them; it issued lava flows from both satellitic and central vents which diverted and blocked local streams to form lava-dammed lakes. The second oldest major volcano, Beta Peak, formed 12 km (7.5 mi) south of Alpha Peak. It rose at least 365 m (1,200 ft) above the surrounding landscape and produced lava flows that travelled at least 13 km (8.1 mi) to the north. Remnants of Alpha Peak and Beta Peak basalt are exposed south and east of Mount Edziza. Gamma Peak, the youngest of the three major volcanoes, formed south of Beta Peak on the western flanks of Cartoona Ridge. Lava flows from Gamma Peak buried gently sloping alluvial fans on the northern and western flanks of the Armadillo Highlands. An eroded remnant of this volcano forms a prominent rock pinnacle just southeast of Coffee Crater called Cartoona Peak; Kaia Bluff north of Cartoona Peak is also a remnant of Gamma Peak.
The Kounugu Member contains the eroded remains of at least four volcanoes that were active during Nido time. Swarm Peak, the oldest of the four volcanoes, issued lava flows that travelled down the western and southern flanks of the Little Iskut shield volcano. Vanished Peak further to the south was formed during a major eruption that involved lava fountaining; most of the lava from this eruption flowed to the north and west. Lost Peak consists of volcanic ejecta that was deposited in both subaerial and subaqueous environments; the subaqueous material was deposited in a lake that may have formed between the erupting volcano and a lobe of glacial ice. Exile Hill formed on the southwesternmost edge of the MEVC, most of which was engulfed by younger lava that had flowed to the north and west. Basalt from all four volcanoes is exposed around the perimeter of the younger Spectrum Range.
The Nido eruptions deposited 127 cubic kilometres (30 cubic miles) of volcanic material, making the Nido Formation the most voluminous geological formation of the second magmatic cycle. Potassium–argon dating of Nido alkali basalt has given ages of 7.8 ± 0.3 million years, 5.5 ± 1.6 million years, 4.5 ± 0.3 million years and 4.4 ± 0.5 million years. The first age comes from basal basalt of the Kounugu Member overlying basement rocks and, if correct, implies that the Nido eruptions may have initiated during the Raspberry eruptive period.


The next eruptive period, the Spectrum period, occurred between 4 and 2 million years ago. A relatively small initial eruption of pumice and ash was followed by the effusion of massive rhyolite flows, each up to 150 m (490 ft) thick and 13 km (8.1 mi) long. These rhyolite flows accumulated in rapid succession to form the broad Spectrum Dome which reached a thickness of at least 750 m (2,460 ft) and a width of more than 25 km (16 mi). The predominantly rhyolitic eruptions were followed by the effusion of trachyte lava as deeper parts of the underlying magma chamber were tapped. Formation of the Spectrum Dome was followed by evacuation of the magma chamber, resulting in the creation of a 4.5 km (2.8 mi) wide caldera which was eventually buried by lava from subsequent eruptions.


Yeda Peak, a 2,240 m (7,350 ft) high pinnacle in the middle of the Spectrum Range, was the site of an explosive eruption late in Spectrum time that resulted in the formation of a crater. Some of the ejecta accumulated around the vent to form a low volcanic cone whereas the more volatile, pumice-rich phases of the eruption sent ash flows down the slopes of the Spectrum Dome. Renewed volcanism at Exile Hill 8 km (5.0 mi) to the west produced a similar but much smaller eruption that created a roughly 200 m (660 ft) wide breccia pipe. Late-stage volcanism of the Spectrum eruptive period also deposited alkali basalt flows of the Kitsu Member which likely issued from multiple eruptive centres on the dome's summit that have since been removed by erosion. These lava flows travelled over a layer of polymict gravel that overlies older volcanic rocks produced during Spectrum time.
The Spectrum eruptions deposited 118 cubic kilometres (28 cubic miles) of volcanic material, making the Spectrum Formation the second most voluminous geological formation of the second magmatic cycle. More than 90% of this volcanic material was erupted as lava whereas less than 10% of it was erupted as pumice and pyroclastic flows; trachyte, pantellerite and comendite are the main rocks comprising this volcanic material. An anomalously old potassium–argon date of 5.9 ± 1.1 million years has been obtained from Kitsu Member alkali basalt. Potassium–argon dates more in line with the volcanic stratigraphy include 3.1 ± 0.1 million years and 3.0 ± 0.1 million years from comendite and 3.4 ± 0.1 million years and 2.9 ± 0.1 million years from comenditic glass.
The once continuous Spectrum Dome was substantially eroded to form the current peaks and ridges of the Spectrum Range. Extensive erosion also reduced the size of the dome, leaving behind a few remnants around its northern and southwestern edges. Relatively thin trachyte flows northwest of the Spectrum Range on the Kitsu Plateau are the most distal remnants, although they may have originated from a nearby satellitic vent. Erosional remnants of Kitsu Member alkali basalt flows cap the higher summits of the Spectrum Range where they overlie the unmodified upper surface of the original dome. The original dome was higher in elevation as evidenced by the thick, gently dipping trachyte flows forming the 2,430-metre-high (7,972-foot) summit of Kitsu Peak, the highest point of the Spectrum Range.


The Pyramid eruptive period 1.1 million years ago involved violent explosive eruptions of rock fragments, gas and trachyte pumice from a vent adjacent to the northwestern margin of the MEVC; this explosivity was accompanied by phreatic explosions and pyroclastic surges. Subsequent eruptions sent thin basalt flows into the valley of a north-flowing glacial stream where they formed a small lava-dammed lake. This short period of basaltic volcanism was followed by the extrusion of felsic flows and domes forming The Pyramid, a pyramid-shaped mound on the northeastern flank of Mount Edziza.


Renewed volcanism during this eruptive period produced viscous rhyolite lava and volcanic ejecta of the Sphinx Dome which may have formed subglacially. Some of the ejecta settled in a lake that had formed between the growing dome and an ice field along its southern margin, resulting in the formation of an evenly distributed volcaniclastic deposit on the lake bed. The Sphinx Dome reached a height of 800 m (2,600 ft) and a length of 5 km (3.1 mi) by the time activity ceased.
A third pulse of volcanism constructed the Pharaoh Dome just south of the lake that ponded during Sphinx Dome activity. Eruptions were at first subglacial which led to a series of phreatic steam explosions and the quenching of rhyolite lava by meltwater. Pharaoh Dome eventually built above the level of the surrounding ice as flows of rhyolite continued to enlarge the dome. By the time activity ceased, Pharaoh Dome had risen above the surface of a large ice field as a nunatak; it was subsequently buried under glacial ice.
The Pyramid eruptions were much less voluminous than those of the Nido and Spectrum eruptive periods, depositing only 11.4 cubic kilometres (2.7 cubic miles) of volcanic material; this makes the Pyramid Formation the least voluminous geological formation of the second magmatic cycle. Potassium–argon dating of comenditic glass produced during the Pyramid eruptive period has yielded ages of 1.2 ± 0.4 million years and 1.20 ± 0.03 million years. Trachyte produced during this eruptive period has yielded potassium–argon dates of 0.94 ± 0.12 million years and 0.94 ± 0.05 million years.


The third magmatic cycle occurred between about 1 and 0.8 million years ago during the Pleistocene. It was characterized by three distinct eruptive periods, each represented by a geological formation. The first eruptive period created the Ice Peak Formation which overlies the Armadillo, Nido and Pyramid formations. A wide variety of volcanic rocks comprise the Ice Peak Formation, including alkali basalt, hawaiite, trachybasalt, tristanite, mugearite, benmoreite and trachyte. The second eruptive period resulted in the creation of the Pillow Ridge Formation which consists mainly of alkali basalt. This geological formation is confined to Pillow Ridge and Tsekone Ridge at the northern end of the MEVC. The third eruptive period produced the Edziza Formation which consists mainly of trachyte that overlies the Ice Peak Formation.


The Ice Peak eruptive period began at a time when the MEVC was covered by a regional ice sheet. Volcanism initially began on the southern flank of Sphinx Dome where pyroclastic material mixed with meltwater from residual ice to produce highly mobile debris flows and lahars. Lava flows advanced across the glaciated surface as successive eruptions built Ice Peak, resulting in the formation of narrow meltwater lakes that were displaced as the lava flows continued to advance down slope. Basaltic lava travelled further down slope onto the Big Raven Plateau while more viscous trachybasalt, tristanite, mugearite, benmoreite and trachyte lava accumulated around the vent area to form the steep, upper part of Ice Peak. At its climax, Ice Peak was a symmetrical stratovolcano containing a small crater at its summit; its symmetrical structure was later destroyed by glacial erosion. An erosional remnant etched from the eastern crater rim forms Ice Peak's current 2,500 m (8,200 ft) high summit, exposing bedded tuff and debris that accumulated inside a former crater lake. Potassium–argon dating of massive trachyte flows in the upper part of Ice Peak has yielded ages of 1.5 ± 0.4 million years and 1.5 ± 0.1 million years. These dates being older than those of the Pyramid eruptive period may be due to excess argon in Ice Peak rocks and are therefore considered unreliable; the true age is estimated to be about 1 million years.


Two thick lobes of trachyte lava issued from satellitic domes on the western flank of Ice Peak during this eruptive period, both of which were deposited onto the Big Raven Plateau. The southern lobe, Koosick Bluff, ranges in elevation from 1,890 to 2,010 m (6,200 to 6,590 ft) and is bounded by cliffs that rise 60–90 m (200–300 ft) to a nearly flat surface. With a length of nearly 2 km (1.2 mi) and a width of more than 1 km (0.62 mi), Koosick Bluff is the largest of the two lava lobes. The northern and smaller lobe, Ornostay Bluff, is similar in composition and structure to Koosick Bluff; it has a potassium–argon date of 1.5 ± 0.4 million years which may be due to excess argon. The steep sides and unusually large thicknesses of these two lava lobes is attributed to them having been extruded through glacial ice.
Volcanic activity during Ice Peak time created two volcanoes west of the Armadillo Highlands. The northern volcano, Camp Hill, began forming when the MEVC was still partially covered by glacial ice. Eruptions under the glacial ice formed a circular meltwater pond which quenched the erupting lava and caused phreatic explosions, resulting in fractured and churned debris accumulating around the erupting vent to create a broad tuff ring. This feature eventually grew above the level of the meltwater pond to produce subaerial lava fountains which formed a relatively steep-sided pyroclastic cone on top of the tuff ring. By this time the surrounding glacial ice had retreated, allowing basalt flows to spread over the Big Raven Plateau. The southern cinder cone, Cache Hill, formed during a period of eruptions on the western side of the Armadillo Highlands; basalt flows blocked a northwesterly flowing river in a broad valley to form a lava-dammed lake. Subsequent basalt flows travelled to the southeast and northwest, the southeasterly flows entering the lava-dammed lake to create pillow lava.
A circular volcanic plug called The Neck formed southeast of Ice Peak on the northern side of Sorcery Ridge during this eruptive period. It was the source of more than one trachyte eruption; the magma from these eruptions solidified in the conduit to create the outer ring of fine grained trachyte and the inner core of coarse grained trachyte comprising The Neck. This volcanic plug, roughly 300 m (980 ft) in diameter, has a potassium–argon date of 1.6 ± 0.2 million years which may be due to excess argon.
The eruptions during Ice Peak time deposited 76.7 cubic kilometres (18.4 cubic miles) of volcanic material, making the Ice Peak Formation the most voluminous geological formation of the third magmatic cycle. This is the latest MEVC eruptive period involving the outpouring of more than 20 cubic kilometres (4.8 cubic miles) of lava. It is also the only eruptive period of the MEVC involving the eruption of large volumes of intermediate rocks.