In 1915, the Kingdom of Italy entered the First World War on the side of the Entente following the signing of the Treaty of London, which promised Italy territorial gains at the expense of Austria-Hungary. The treaty was opposed by representatives of the South Slavs living in Austria-Hungary, who were organised as the Yugoslav Committee. Following the 3 November 1918 Armistice of Villa Giusti, the Austro-Hungarian surrender, and well ahead of the Paris Peace Conference, Italian troops moved to occupy parts of the eastern Adriatic shore that had been promised to Italy under the Treaty of London. To counter Italian demands, the internationally unrecognised State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs, a proto-state that was carved from areas of Austria-Hungary populated by the South Slavs, authorised the Yugoslav Committee to represent it abroad. The short-lived state, which would soon seek union with the Kingdom of Serbia to establish the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, laid a competing claim to the eastern Adriatic coast and islands. This claim was supported with the deployment of the Royal Serbian Army to the area. Major powers did not recognise the new unified state before June 1919.
The Treaty of London's provisions were a major point of dispute between Italy and the remaining Entente powers at the Paris Peace Conference. The chief Italian representatives, Prime Minister Vittorio Emanuele Orlando and foreign minister Sidney Sonnino demanded enforcement of the treaty arguing that possession of the promised territories was vital for Italian security, and called for the annexation of the city of Rijeka (Italian: Fiume) based on the principle of self-determination. Orlando was prepared to abandon claims in Dalmatia, except Zadar (Italian: Zara) and Šibenik (Italian: Sebenico), while insisting on annexing Rijeka. Sonnino held a view that was summarised as "Pact of London plus Fiume", portraying the claim as a matter of Italian national honour.
The British and French governments would not publicly endorse any claims exceeding those the treaty afforded, while privately believing Italy deserved little due to its reserved attitude towards Germany in the early stages of the war. Regarding Dalmatia, the British Prime Minister David Lloyd George supported a free-city status for Zadar and Šibenik only, while the French Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau supported such a status for Zadar only. Clemenceau and Lloyd George were content for the President of the United States Woodrow Wilson to hold in check Italian ambitions in the Adriatic by advocating self-determination for the area under point nine of his Fourteen Points.
Wilson deemed the Treaty of London a symbol of the perfidy of European diplomacy and held it invalid by dint of the legal doctrine of clausula rebus sic stantibus – that the treaty was no longer applicable because there had been fundamental changes in the circumstances in which it was negotiated, namely the dissolution of Austria-Hungary.


The Naval Commission for the Adriatic was established based on the decision of the Allied Naval Council of the Supreme War Council on 5 November 1918. The commission, composed of admirals delegated by the four powers, was tasked with coordinating the Allied occupation forces. It was also intended to maintain order, normalise civilian life, manage maritime transport, oversee the distribution of the Austro-Hungarian fleet, and deal with other related issues that the Paris Peace Conference had permanently settled. The commission was first convened in Rijeka. Later, it moved to Venice and Rome. Initially, it was chaired by the Italian Rear Admiral Vittorio Molà. He was replaced by Admiral Paolo Thaon di Revel based on a decision of the Allied Naval Council in Paris on the same day.
The commission agreed on zones of occupation of the eastern Adriatic shores. The occupation plan was never fully enforced; only Italy deployed a large force to the area. The assignment of the Italian zone was the result of a fait accompli. Italy interpreted the armistice terms as allowing them to establish the armistice line per the claims laid out in the Treaty of London. Italy had already established a firm foothold in the claimed area by the time the zones were defined in Venice on 16 November, in a meeting of the commission chaired by Revel. Other sources say the zones were defined on 26 November at a commission meeting in Rome. Italy would control northern parts of Dalmatia corresponding to the Dalmatian territory promised under the Treaty of London. The US would control the southern Dalmatian coast, and France would control the coasts of the southernmost part of Dalmatia, the Kingdom of Montenegro and the further south coast of the Principality of Albania. The United Kingdom was to control the Kvarner Gulf.
The former Austro-Hungarian realm of the Kingdom of Dalmatia encompassed the entire Italian and American zones of occupation and a portion of the French zone. In the territory of the Kingdom of Dalmatia as a whole, Croats comprised 80%, Serbs comprised 17%, and Italians comprised 3% of the population. According to the 1910 Austro-Hungarian census, all Dalmatian municipalities had a Slavic majority of 95% or more, except Kotor (Italian: Cattaro) and Zadar. In the former, the Slavic population accounted for 80% of the total, Italians for 1%, German speakers comprised 3% and foreign nationals accounted for more than 11% of the population. The city of Zadar had an Italian majority. Rijeka was ethnically mixed and both sides in the dispute claimed majority in Rijeka, but defined the city limits differently. Italians argued that the city consisted of the former Austro-Hungarian corpus separatum territory only, but the South Slavs argued that the suburb of Sušak should also be accounted for.

Allied occupation of the eastern Adriatic


In late October 1918, the governing organ of the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs, the Zagreb-based National Council of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs, appointed Rikard Lenac to take over the administration of Rijeka on behalf of the newly proclaimed state. The move was coordinated with the administratively separate suburb of Sušak. The takeover of authority occurred on 29 or 31 October, according to varying sources. Military authority in Rijeka and Sušak was assumed by Lieutenant Colonel Petar Teslić, who commanded eight battalions of the 79th Infantry Regiment of the former Austro-Hungarian Common Army normally based in Otočac, and pro-Yugoslav National Guard volunteers, largely consisting of high-school pupils. Leading ethnic Italians living in the city established the Italian National Council of Fiume (Italian: Consiglio Nazionale delli Italiani di Fiume) and declared the desire to incorporate the city into Italy. They dispatched a delegation to Revel in Venice to request aid. Lenac asked Zagreb to send additional troops as well. There were clashes between Italian and South Slavic communities in the city, each side claiming the city based on the self-determination principle. While Italy said there was an Italian majority in the city within the boundaries of the former Austro-Hungarian Corpus Separatum, the South Slavs said the entire city, including the suburb of Sušak, had a South Slavic majority.


On 2 November 1918, a group of United States Navy ships sailed into the Port of Rijeka. The next day, they were followed by a French and a British force. Colonel Sydney Capel Peck led the British mission to Rijeka. On the same day, a joint allied command was established in Rijeka, ostensibly to prevent further ethnic violence. On 3 November, the day the armistice was signed, Italian armed forces gained control of much of the nearby Istrian peninsula, including the cities of Trieste, Rovinj (Italian: Rovigno) and Pula (Italian: Pola). The Italian navy arrived in the Port of Rijeka on 4 November; the first group consisted of the battleship Emanuele Filiberto; and the destroyers Francesco Stocco, Vincenzo Giordano Orsini, and Giuseppe Sirtori. On 5 November, the French destroyers Touareg and Sakalave brought further reinforcements.
A 700-strong battalion of the First Yugoslav Volunteer Division led by Lieutenant Colonel Vojin Maksimović arrived from Zagreb on 15 November. Two days later, 16,000 Italian troops led by General Enrico Asinari di San Marzano arrived. The battalion of the First Yugoslav Volunteer Division withdrew from the city, and Teslić's troops were quickly disarmed. Some sources say Maksimović's withdrawal from the city was negotiated and made in exchange for the promise San Marzano's troops would not enter Rijeka but would remain in nearby Opatija. Although neither Rijeka nor Sušak were awarded to Italy under the Treaty of London, Italian authorities justified the deployment by referring to provisions of the armistice allowing occupation of additional territories required for strategic purposes. By early 1919, there were approximately 20,000 Italian troops in Rijeka. The commission discussed the Italian military dominance in the British zone and recommended that the Paris Peace Conference ensure military parity with other allied forces. Italy objected to the recommendation, and the Paris Peace Conference did not act upon it.
On 6 July, the paramilitary Legione "Fiumana" loyal to Italy clashed with French Annam troops in the city, killing 13 people. This action prompted the establishment of an international commission to determine responsibility for the incident. The commission recommended disbanding Legione "Fiumana" and reducing the number of Italian troops in the area to a single battalion as quickly as possible, leaving law enforcement to the British and the US forces. Those recommendations were not implemented, but the 1st Regiment "Granatieri di Sardegna" was withdrawn from the city and moved to Ronchi dei Monfalcone near Trieste on 27 August 1919.


At the Paris Peace Conference, the United States, the United Kingdom, and France rejected Italian claims under the Treaty of London and claims regarding Rijeka. In June 1919, the Italian Orlando-led government was replaced by one led by Francesco Saverio Nitti. The new prime minister wanted to settle diplomatic issues abroad before concentrating on domestic matters. The Italian foreign minister Tommaso Tittoni agreed with the British and French that Rijeka should be a free city under the League of Nations, and that the entirety of Dalmatia should belong to the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes.
To pre-empt an unfavourable settlement of the issue, the Italian nationalist and irredentist Gabriele D'Annunzio set out to Rijeka with approximately 200 veterans on the evening of 11 September. When the column reached Ronchi dei Monfalcone, the "Granatieri di Sardegna" joined it. The now-about 2,500-strong column proceeded towards Rijeka and arrived there the next day. In response to D'Annunzio's arrival, Italian and other allied troops withdrew from the city. D'Annunzio proclaimed the establishment of Italian Regency of Carnaro in the city the same day. His rule continued for fifteen months. In the period, the departure of the Croatian population hastened due to increased looting and violence directed against them in response to the death of the captain of the cruiser Puglia in a clash in Split in July 1920.


According to the 1910 census, the city of Zadar was the only district of the Kingdom of Dalmatia that had an Italian majority. The Kingdom of Dalmatia was administered from Zadar where the Diet of Dalmatia and regional government had their seats. In 1910, Zadar had a population of 13,247 and an Italian majority of 70%.
The Italian National Council and the Yugoslav National Council were established by 28 October 1918, competing for control of Zadar. The Italian National Council was led by former mayor Luigi Ziliotto, while the Yugoslav National Council, established by Croats and Serbs, was headed by the Dalmatian vice-governor Josip Tončić-Sorinj. Austro-Hungarian authorities had already been removed from the city on 31 October. That day, the ad-hoc pro-Italian National Guard, led by Antonio Battara and Carlo de Hoeberth, informed disarmed troops in the city barracks that the Italian National Council had taken over the city government. Following the takeover of the barracks, Ziliotto, who had been removed from the position of mayor in 1916 when the central government of Austria-Hungary had dissolved the city council and replaced him with commissioner Mate Škarić, proceeded to the city hall accompanied by deposed council members and removed Škarić from office. In the afternoon, the two national councils agreed on a joint Provisional Committee consisting of Ziliotto, Juraj Biankini, Silvije Alfirević, and Giuseppe Cortelazzo. The Provisional Committee placed the Dalmatian governor Mario Attems under house arrest and requested that he leave Zadar, which he did that night. All Austro-Hungarian insignia were removed from the city streets, and the Italian, Croatian, and Serbian flags were raised at the City Guard building.
On 4 November 1918, three Regia Marina ships set sail from Venice to Zadar to enforce the Italian claim against the city, each carrying a platoon of the Arezzo Infantry Brigade. Two of the three ships collided en route and turned back, leaving the torpedo boat 55 AS to continue alone. It arrived in Zadar at 2:30 p.m. and 66 troops disembarked 15 minutes later, a few minutes before the armistice with Austria-Hungary was scheduled to come into effect. Upon arrival, the commanding officer of 55 AS, Felice de Boccard, declared he had arrived on the authority of the Entente and as an ally and in the name of the king of Italy. Both ethnic Italians and Croats welcomed him. The torpedo boat 68 PN and the destroyer Audace arrived at Zadar on 5 and 7 November, respectively. Various sources report that the Serbian and Croatian flags were removed from Zadar on 8 or 11 November. Biankini was placed under house arrest and then exiled from the city. In his speeches, Ziliotto incited hatered against non-Italian population of Zadar and declared he would destroy the city if it was not awarded to Italy by the Paris Peace Conference. There were rumours in the city that the Slavic population will be forcibly deported.


On 4 November, another group of Italian vessels departed from Brindisi and occupied the islands of Vis (Italian: Lissa), Korčula (Italian: Curzola), Mljet (Italian: Melada), and Lastovo (Italian: Lagosta). By the end of 1918, Italian troops occupied the Dalmatian coast between and including Zadar and Šibenik, and the hinterland extending to Knin (Italian: Tenin) and Drniš (Italian: Dernis). They also occupied the islands of Hvar (Italian: Lesina) and Pag (Italian: Pago). On 19 November, General Armando Diaz appointed Vice Admiral Enrico Millo the governor of the newly established Governorate of Dalmatia. The appointment was made possible by an Italian government decree of the same day. The government relied on its wartime powers and authorised the governor to issue legislative decrees. The governorate's seat was in Šibenik until January 1919, when it was moved to Zadar. The entire zone came under Italian control on 20 February 1919. The islands of Rab (Italian: Arbe) and Cres (Italian: Cherso) further north also came under Italian occupation.
Forces under Millo's control initially consisted of the Savona Infantry Brigade, several hundred Carabinieri and customs guards, and two battalions of marines. Millo requested reinforcements and received elements of the 24th Infantry Division "Pinerolo". Hoping to receive aircraft under his command, Millo ordered construction of an airbase near Zemunik Donji. The reinforcements brought the number of Italian troops deployed in the Italian zone and elsewhere along the eastern Adriatic coast to 29,000 by July 1919. Still, later in the year, the force was reduced to about 15,000, and 12,000 in mid-1920. Millo's requests for reinforcements were motivated by the possibility of a conflict with the army of the newly established Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, or the hostile population. The reduction of the number of troops was caused by the Italian government's decision to reduce military expenses. The local non-Italian population often expressed dissatisfaction with the Italian army presence, and several minor clashes occurred in 1919. Aiming to repeat his takeover of Rijeka, on 14 November 1919, D'Annunzio led an expedition to Zadar whereupon Millo took D'Annunzio's troops under his command, promising not to abandon Dalmatia.


There were frequent deportations of the non-Italian population by the Italian forces. Millo suppressed national liberties, and authorities in the Italian zone systematically harassed non-Italians with methods including physical assaults and confiscation of ration cards. Non-Italian magistrates, physicians, teachers, and priests were particularly targeted to replace them with ethnic Italians. To reduce the potential for travel to the zone, the occupation authorities made false reports of smallpox outbreaks. Most of the deported persons and those fleeing ethnic persecution went to the American zone. Such practices by Italian authorities largely ceased after Nitti replaced Orlando as Prime Minister in June 1919.


The American zone of occupation extended between the Italian and French zones; it lay between Cape Planka and the island of Šipan (Italian: Giuppana) north-west of Dubrovnik (Italian: Ragusa). The US presence was confined mainly to the city of Split (Italian: Spalato), while the armed forces of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes controlled the rest of the coast in the zone. Italy successfully lobbied for British support for the potential Italian occupation of Split. Revel formally requested inter-allied occupation of Split on 14 November, a few days before the city was included in the American zone.
Austro-Hungarian government bodies had already been removed from the city in late October, and the National Council of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs appointed the provincial government of Dalmatia in Split. The provincial government consisted of Ivo Krstelj, Josip Smodlaka, and Vjekoslav Škarica; and deputies Prvislav Grisogono, Uroš Desnica, and Jerko Machiedo. In early 1919, General Miloš Vasić arrived in Split as the appointed delegate of the Government of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes to the provincial government of Dalmatia. Before the arrival of the allied navies, public safety in Split, which was affected by shortages of food and coal, had been entrusted to 200 pro-Yugoslav National Guard volunteers organised into three companies. Because the US forces in Dalmatia were tasked with promoting Wilson's policy of self-determination, the US Navy protected and assisted the provincial government.


On 9 November, the first French vessels arrived in Split. The destroyers Touareg and Sakalave sailed into the Port of Split for a day and were followed by the seaplane carrier Foudre. The population welcomed the French ships. At the same time, proponents of the Italian annexation of Dalmatia hoisted Italian flags in the port, which led to civil unrest and conflict between the city's pro-Italian minority and its anti-Italian majority, and a gathered crowd forcefully removed the flags. An Italian torpedo boat sailed to the town, but it had to anchor in the port because nobody would receive its mooring lines.
The Austro-Hungarian battleships Radetzky and Zrínyi sailed from Pula, and reached Split on 12 November to await surrender to Rear Admiral William H. G. Bullard. Bullard instructed Lieutenant Commander Edward Hazlett to go to Split with 200 troops and take control of the battleships. Sixteen US submarine chasers arrived in Split to accept the surrender, following which all but three proceeded to Šibenik. The two battleships hoisted US flags on 20 November. On the same day, a detachment of the Royal Serbian Army arrived by boat via Metković. The troops, led by Major Stojan Trnokopović, were accommodated in Gripe Fortress. By early 1919, the regular Army of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes garrisoned the coastal settlements of Split, Trogir (Italian: Traù), and Omiš with a battalion in each, and one company was stationed in the inland town of Sinj.
Numerous allied ships made port calls in Split. By January 1919, those included Foudre, and the French destroyers Bambara, Arabe, Hova, Sénégalais, and Janissaire, and the Arabis-class sloop Altair. In the same period, calls to the Port of Split were made by the Italian ships Carlo Mirabello, Alessandro Poerio, and Puglia, as well as US Navy's USS Israel. On 15 December, HMS Sheldrake was the first Royal Navy ship to arrive. By January 1919, it was followed by HMS Lowestoft and HMS Veronica. In February 1919, USS Olympia arrived in Split with Rear Admiral Philip Andrews aboard. USS Olympia took the role of the lead ship of the US forces, with USS Pittsburgh filling in when Olympia was not in port. Andrews took over the command of the US Naval Forces in the Eastern Mediterranean from Rear Admiral Albert Parker Niblack on 26 March. Following Andrews's arrival, the US Navy rented a Katalinić family residential building in the port as office premises, and another house as a residence for Andrews and his wife. US Navy officers also opened a YMCA in the present-day building of the Split Archaeological Museum. British sailors occasionally played football matches against Hajduk Football Club. The United States financed the repair of roads, telegraph lines, storage facilities, buildings, and sports grounds used by the US Navy.


The civil unrest persisted during the Allied occupation. Friction arose during the distribution of food and travel documents from Puglia because only the non-Italian population encountered real or perceived difficulties. There were occasional conflicts between Italian sailors, specifically the crew of Puglia, and the city's non-Italian population. Typical provocations involved hoisting of the flag of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes in the port with assembled citizens saluting the flag while shouting insults to Italy. In response, Italian sailors and officers would often engage in verbal conflicts with the citizens. This prompted Niblack to declare a ban on public gatherings, singing of patriotic songs and flag-waving.
On 24 February 1919, a conference was convened in Split to examine allegations of persecution of the city's Italian minority presented in the Italian press. Bullard and Niblack attended the conference on behalf of the United States; Admiral Umberto Cagni and Rear Admiral Ugo Rombo on behalf of Italy; Rear Admiral Jean Ratyé on behalf of France; and Admiral Edward Buxton Kiddle representing the UK; and representatives of the city government were also present. At the conference, Rombo proposed landing a large Italian force to quell the civil unrest, but Niblack, who held the Italian navy and propaganda responsible, opposed the idea. The conference agreed on inter-allied patrols to ensure order in Split. The inter-allied patrols initially consisted of one officer, one petty officer and three enlisted men drawn from each allied navy, one soldier from the armed forces of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes and one city police officer. Later, the patrols were reduced in strength by two-thirds as the situation gradually calmed. In addition to the allied patrols, the local police, consisting of 65 officers supplemented by the National Guard militia, maintained order in the city. Initially, the National Guard were unreliable and even participated in looting, but they became an effective police auxiliary force by early 1919.


D'Annunzio's takeover of Rijeka inspired a group of Italian officers to attempt the same in Trogir. On 23 September 1919, Count Nino Fanfogna led 200 Italian soldiers into the town. After a brief skirmish, the attackers disarmed the town garrison maintained by the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. The government in Belgrade sent a protest to the Paris Peace Conference, while the provincial government of Dalmatia and Vasić complained to Andrews. He sent USS Olympia and USS Cowell under Captain David French Boyd, Jr. to Trogir.
Upon arrival, 100 US sailors and officers landed and took positions between Fanfogna and the troops defending Trogir. Boyd demanded Fanfogna's troops leave the town, giving them a two-hour ultimatum. They complied with Boyd's demand, withdrawing to Zadar. Andrews blamed both sides for the conflict, claiming the Italian force, inspired by D'Annunzio, wanted war, as did Lieutenant Colonel Milan Plesničar of the Army of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes stationed in Split.


On 10 November, the French, British, and Italian navies sailed into the Austro-Hungarian Navy base in Kotor and Rear Admiral Louis Caubet of France took command of the city in the name of the Allies. The following day, three US Navy submarine chasers also arrived. By 15 November, Italy had deployed two battalions of soldiers to the area. Local authorities protested against the landing of Italian troops, declaring their intention to resist such a move if Italy were to deploy troops alone ashore. In turn, the Allies asked the Italians not to proceed with the landing, but the request was declined. Italy deployed the 137th Infantry Regiment "Barletta", which was led by Major General Demetrio Carbone, to Kotor and the 1st Infantry Regiment "San Giusto" to Bar. Italy also garrisoned the town of Ulcinj. To preserve the appearance of joint landing and prevent a clash, the Allies assigned some sailors to disembark with the Italian soldiers. To avoid the landing appearing to be an exclusively Italian occupation, Caube asked the landing forces to proceed in small, unobtrusive groups, but instead, the Italians held a ceremony with a prominent display of Italian flags and the playing of the Italian national anthem.
On 18 November, Italian transports brought in a further 3,000 troops and a battalion of the United States Army. The American battalion belonged to the 332nd Infantry Regiment, which had been attached to the Italian army since its defeat in the 1917 Battle of Caporetto. This had been intended to enhance the Italians' defensive capabilities and boost morale. The regiment remained under Italian command following the armistice, and its 2nd Battalion was sent to Kotor. US sources concluded that the Italian landings in the Bay of Kotor were designed to saturate the area with Italian troops, thereby gaining a politically dominant position in the region. The declared purpose of allied deployments to the Bay of Kotor was to secure the Austro-Hungarian naval base in Kotor.


Italy supported Montenegrin independence, viewing the prospective unified South Slavic state as a threat to its interests in the Balkans and the Adriatic. Italy exploited the Montenegrin question to extract concessions from Serbia. Carbone deployed a force to capture the nearby Montenegrin capital Cetinje on 23 November. His action was designed in line with Italian government policy of supporting Montenegrin independence in the immediate aftermath of the war and following contested elections for the Podgorica Assembly needed to decide on unification with Serbia. To capture Cetinje, he used two companies of the 332nd Infantry Regiment and two smaller Italian units. While en route, local officials approached Major Scanlon, the commanding officer of the two US companies, and explained the political situation to him. In response, Scanlon turned the US troops back to Kotor, leaving the Italians to proceed towards Cetinje. Upon reaching the Montenegrin border, the Italian troops clashed with a Serbian unit blocking the route and were forced to turn back. Carbone planned another attempt to capture Cetinje but was dissuaded following a heated discussion of the issue between Ratyé and Revel in Rome on 26–29 November. The French favoured Serbian (subsequently Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes) control of Montenegro, and facilitated the deployment of 3,000 pro-Serbian Montenegrin troops in the area. The French-trained and supported troops included about 400 to be deployed in Kotor and 500 in Dubrovnik. A day after the proclamation of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes on 2 December, Sonnino ordered the withdrawal of all Italian forces from Kotor. The order was later modified to allow some of the troops to remain.
On 3 January 1919, pro-independence Greens, a faction in the Montenegrin Christmas Uprising, approached Brigadier General Paul Venel, who had replaced Caubet as the French commanding officer in the zone, requesting the Allies to occupy Cetinje and deny it to the forces of Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. Venel declined, prompting the Italian command in Montenegro to criticise the French for their bias. On 5 January, Venel sent French and American troops, and troops belonging to the newly proclaimed Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes to Cetinje, taking control of the city two days later. At the same time, he intervened in an Italian effort to regain control of the village of Njeguši from the Greens. Carbone personally led Italian and US troops. Venel ordered the Italians to stop their advance, while the US troops were allowed to proceed to the objective. Although he was acting on instructions from the commander of the Allied Army of the Orient General Louis Franchet d'Espèrey, Venel was relieved of command in February 1919 after further protests by the Italians and the Montenegrin government in exile. Venel was replaced by General Mathias Tahon.


The US troops left Montenegro in early 1919, while the French and the Italians limited their occupation to coastal areas of Bar and Ulcinj, the town of Virpazar on the shore of Lake Skadar, and Kotor at the southernmost tip of Dalmatia at the time, on the orders of d'Espèrey in April 1919. The remainder of Montenegro was left for the Army of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes to occupy. French troops left Bar and Virpazar in March 1920, while the Italian troops remained there until the middle of 1920. A portion of the Austro-Hungarian fleet stationed in Kotor was handed over to the Navy of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. The transfer was settled by the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye providing for the transfer eight 250t-class torpedo boats, four older Kaiman-class torpedo boats as well as a number of auxiliary and obsolete vessels.


In June 1920, Nitti's government was replaced by a cabinet led by Giovanni Giolitti, who sought to focus more on domestic issues and resolve foreign policy matters promptly. The Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes sought to gain unobstructed access to Adriatic ports for commercial purposes. It hoped for US assistance until Warren G. Harding and the Republican Party won the 1920 US presidential election. On 12 November, delegations of the two countries met in Rapallo and concluded a treaty on mutual borders. Italy received Istria, while the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes received Dalmatia, excluding Zadar and several smaller islands. It was decided that Rijeka and its immediate surroundings would become the Free State of Fiume.
In response to the signing of the Treaty of Rapallo, the Italian Regency of Carnaro proclaimed a state of war. Still, the Italian Navy drove D'Annunzio from Rijeka in an intervention known as Bloody Christmas. Military rule persisted in the Italian zone until the end of December 1920, when a special civilian commissioner was appointed in Zadar, the seat of the Province of Zara, in the aftermath of the treaty. All allied troops left the French zone in December when the French left Kotor. The Treaty of Rapallo, along with the death of Nicholas I of Montenegro a few months later, marked the end of Italian support for Montenegrin resistance against the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes.
On 7 November, the US Navy towed Radetzky and Zrínyi to Šibenik and handed the ships to the Regia Marina. Although this completed the naval aspect of the US mission to the region, the United States Department of State requested that the navy remain in Split until Italian vessels withdrew from the city and Italian troops withdrew from the Italian zone of occupation. The Adriatic Committee convened for the final time on 31 January 1921 to wind down its operations. On 26 April, Andrews left Split aboard USS Olympia. The US mission was concluded on 29 September 1921 as USS Reuben James, which was commanded by Rufus F. Zogbaum, Jr. as the senior officer in the Adriatic, sailed out of Split.


AlphaBounce is an action game developed by Motion Twin and published by Mad Monkey Studio for the Nintendo DSi's DSiWare service in April 2010. Similar to the video games Breakout and Arkanoid, the player uses a paddle to knock a ball into blocks to clear them from a playing field. They control one of three characters, progressing through levels across a map in order to escape a mining colony. The title has more than 25 million procedurally generated levels. It is an adaptation of a free-to-play browser game of the same name, offering unlimited play that was not available in the original version.
The game has received generally positive reviews and was praised as an exemplary clone of Breakout and Arkanoid as well as for its value in the Nintendo DSi store. Multiple publications have considered AlphaBounce among the best DSiWare games. Criticism focused on long load times, confusing power-ups, and occasionally tedious gameplay.


AlphaBounce is an action game where the player uses a paddle to bounce a ball into blocks until they are destroyed. The gameplay is similar to Breakout and Arkanoid. The game has three difficulty levels, with each difficulty represented by a different character. In the game's story, the characters are prisoners on a deep space mining colony who are trying to escape by breaking through the blocks across multiple levels. The first two characters are available for selection from the beginning, while the third must be unlocked. This single-player game uses the Nintendo DSi's touchscreen to control a paddle that manipulates a ball around the play field. AlphaBounce features more than 40 types of blocks, which interact differently with the ball.
The action takes place across the Nintendo DSi's two vertically aligned screens. During play, items will sometimes appear that either help or hinder the player when collected. There are more than two dozen such items with unique effects, such as clearing parts of the map or adding additional balls. There are also obstacles, like enemies that shoot lasers to damage the paddle and cause the player to lose the level. Once the play field has only a few blocks remaining, a weapon may be activated to clear them. Losing all balls will cause the player to lose the level. Once a level is cleared, any locked levels adjacent to it on the map become available to play. On this map, the player is only able to move one space per turn and can find upgrades to either their paddle or ball. The player can also replay previous levels. The game features 25 million procedurally generated levels.


AlphaBounce was originally designed as a free-to-play browser game by developer Motion Twin in 2007. Only three levels could be played in a day, allowing players to play more by spending real money. The company eventually took the game offline and archived the source files on GitHub. Another version was later developed by Motion Twin and published by Mad Monkey Studio. In 2010, it was released on the Nintendo DSi's DSiWare download service on April 9 in Europe and April 12 in North America.. The DSiWare version does not have the per-day limitations of the browser game.


AlphaBounce has received generally favorable reviews according to the review aggregation website Metacritic. It is considered one of the best DSiWare games by Nintendo World Report writer Neal Ronaghan, GamesRadar+ writer Andrew Hayward, IGN staff, and Nintendo Power staff, with Ronaghan hoping to see it re-released on the Wii U's Virtual Console.
Critics such as IGN writer Daemon Hatfield and NintendoLife writer Marcel van Duyn considered AlphaBounce a fresh take on the Arkanoid and Breakout formula, with van Duyn calling it the best Arkanoid clone ever made. The A.V. Club staff called the game a "pleasant surprise". They praised its unexpected concept while expressing a desire to see it on the iPhone, lamenting that it is restricted to the obscure DSiWare store. Ronaghan felt the game distinguished itself from Arkanoid by adding role-playing elements, comparing it favorably to Puzzle Quest: Challenge of the Warlords, a novel match-3 game that combined role-playing elements. Hayward felt that AlphaBounce was a more unique Breakout clone than other games on the Nintendo DS, praising the title for the breadth of its content. Nintendo Power writer Phil Theobald found the game similarly deep, appreciating how much it expanded on the Arkanoid formula.
Hatfield praised the game’s extensive content for its low price, writing that repeat play with multiple characters and the ease of re-trying a failed level are enjoyable. Страна игр writer Alexey Nikitin felt that its price was generous, believing that it could be sold as a full-priced Nintendo DS game. Joker writer Navi also compared it to Puzzle Quest. The writer appreciated that the DSi version of the game dropped the free-to-play elements of the browser version, while noting that some content felt like filler.
M! Games staff criticized AlphaBounce, noting that the gameplay became too chaotic and hard to follow when several power-ups dropped at once. Pocket Gamer’s Mike Rose felt that the concept was interesting but criticized the power-ups as hard to distinguish. Furthermore, he condemned details such as the fragile ship and long load times. Gamekult writer Boulapoire also praised the game's concept but had difficulty with the game's confusing power-ups and long load times. Eurogamer’s Kristan Reed praised the game’s inventive ideas and bold scope but felt its sheer number of levels made progression tedious and demanded more patience than it was worth.


Amat-Mamu was a Babylonian nadītu priestess in Sippar from the 18th century BC who was the subject of legal proceedings involving her inheritance. Amat-Mamu was chosen as the heir of fellow nadītu Belessunu, who bequeathed Amat-Mamu her land and slaves. In exchange, Amat-Mamu was to provide for Belessunu until her death. The estate was claimed by two of Belessunu's cousins, but the mayor ruled in favor of Belessunu and Amat-Mamu. Amat-Mamu then lost the deeds when they were kept in her uncle's home, requiring her to have them reconstituted in a new tablet. This tablet was preserved, and its description of Amat-Mamu's inheritance provides insight into Babylonian inheritance practices.


Amat-Mamu was a nadītu, a priestess to the god Shamash. She was the daughter of Sin-ilum (also transcribed as Sîn-ilum or Sin-ili). Sin-ilum was the son of Sin-tajjār, who in turn was the son of Akšāja. Amat-Mamu had a cousin, an aunt, and a great aunt who were all nadītus as well. Nadītus were sometimes allowed to choose their own heirs, including potential heirs outside of their own families. Such an option was allowed to the nadītu Belessunu, daughter of Mannium, as part of the terms of her own adoption as the heir of her aunt Naramtum, and Belessunu adopted Amat-Mamu as her heir.
Amat-Mamu inherited four fields totaling forty-six acres: a five-acre field and a twenty-acre field in the Pzur-Ilaba district, a nine-acre field in the Akbarum district, and a twelve-acre field in the Pahuşu district. She also inherited two plots of land: one and one-third sar of partially developed land in the cloister and six sar of undeveloped land of Sippar-rabum. Amat-Mamu inherited three slaves from Belessunu: Ana-pani-Šamaš-nadi, Sin-mašmaš, and Sin-mašmaš's brother. Also inherited were a house, two copper pots, and two axes. Amat-Mamu was given the deeds, or "mother tablets", entitling her to Belessunu's property.
Per the terms of the agreement, Amat-Mamu was required to pay Belessunu's debts and provide for her while she lived. The debt totaled two-thirds mina, six shekels of silver. To provide for Belessunu, Amat-Mamu was required to provide Belessunu with six gurs of grain, twelve minas of wool, twenty-four liters of oil, six feasts, twenty liters of flour, and two pieces of meat each year. The agreement specified that this agreement was only with Amat-Mamu, and no other person could lay claim to Belessunu's estate by providing for her.
Two years after the agreement was made, two of Belessunu's cousins and fellow nadītus—Amat-Šamaš and Nīši-īnīšu—laid claim to the fields. The mayor of Sippar, Zimri-Erah, ruled that the inheritance was rightfully Belessunu's. The cousins were penalized for making a false claim over property, and they were forced to give Amat-Mamu a tablet that relinquished their claims. Professor Rivkah Harris speculated that Belessunu passed over her cousins in favor of Amat-Mamu because Amat-Mamu was a member of a wealthy family and therefore better able to support Belessunu during her life.


The cuneiform tablets confirming Amat-Mamu's inheritance were stored in the home of her uncle, Ikun-pī-Sîn. They were kept separate from the family archive so as not to suggest that the inheritance was part of the family estate. It is unknown why they were kept in her uncle's house, though such storage arrangements with family members were not uncommon.
When they were lost, her father Sîn-ilî had a deposition taken from the uncle admitting to their loss. Amat-Mamu was forced to go to the court so the judges could authorize the creation of new tablets. The tablets that Belessunu received as a girl during her own adoption were not reconstituted, for her and her witnesses to that contract had already died. The court also ruled that should the previous tablets be found, they were still the sole property of Amat-Mamu.
The sequence of events describing both the legal dispute and the tablets' loss was documented on the reconstituted tablet. The reconstitution meant that some details were lost and inconsistencies were introduced, primarily in the description of the fields. The tablet is dated to the 14th year of Samsu-iluna's rule, placing its creation in 1736 BC. It has been preserved and is designated by archeologists as CT 47.63. Amat-Mamu's story is listed on the tablet alongside that of Belessunu, including Belessunu's dedication as a nadītu and her adoption by her aunt. The tablet is used in the modern era as a reference to understand Babylonian property and inheritance law.


Ameerega munduruku is a species of poison dart frog in the family Dentrobatidae. It was described in 2017 by the herpetologist Matheus Neves and his colleagues, and is named after the Munduruku, an ethnic group native to Brazil. A medium-sized frog for its genus, it has a snout–vent length of 24.9–27.3 mm (0.98–1.07 in) for adult males and 20.4–28.6 mm (0.80–1.13 in) for adult females. It has black uppersides, with a cream stripe from the snout to the groin, white undersides with worm-like black markings, and brown uppersides to the limbs. There are orange spots on the armpit and lower leg and an orange stripe from the groin to the thigh. Both sexes are similar but can be told apart by the presence of vocal slits in males.
The species is endemic to Brazil, where it is known from two localities in the states of Pará and Mato Grosso. It inhabits Mato Grosso tropical dry forests and Madeira–Tapajós moist forests at elevations of around 200 m (660 ft), where it shelters in rocky outcrops near water in open areas of forest. It breeds during the wet season, with tadpoles having been recorded in November.


Ameerega munduruku was described by the herpetologist Matheus Neves and his colleagues in 2017 on the basis of an adult male specimen collected from Pará, Brazil, in 2016. It is named after the Munduruku, an ethnic group living in the Brazilian states of Pará and Mato Grosso.
The frog is one of 29 species currently recognised within Ameerega, a genus of poison dart frogs native to South America. Before the description of the species, populations of A. munduruku were considered to represent A. picta, although subsequent studies have found that these two species are not closely related. Within its genus, A. munduruku is most closely related (sister) to A. braccata. The clade (group of organisms descending from a common ancestor) formed by these two species is sister to one formed by A. flavopicta and A. berohoka. These four species are sister to another clade formed by A. boehmi and a currently undescribed species from Mato Grosso, and these six species together are sister to A. boliviana. The following cladogram shows relationships within this clade based on a phylogeny by a 2020 study:


A. munduruku is a medium-sized frog for its genus, with a snout–vent length of 24.87–27.33 mm (0.979–1.076 in) for adult males and 20.42–28.59 mm (0.804–1.126 in) for adult females. The back is mostly black, with a cream stripe along the edge of the upperside and over the eye, from the snout to the groin. Another cream stripe runs from the tip of the snout along the lower lips to the forelimbs. The undersides of the body and limbs are white, with worm-like black markings, and the chin is white with black spots. The uppersides of the limbs are brown with some black markings on the hands. Two orange spots are present: one on the armpit and another hidden one on the lower leg. An orange stripe runs from the groin to the upperside of the thigh. The iris is metallic grey. Both sexes look broadly similar, but can be distinguished by the presence of vocal slits (slits on the side of the tongue joining the mouth to the vocal sac) in males. When preserved in 70% ethanol, the orange markings on the underside and the cream stripe on the upperside are duller in colour and the iris is grey. The skin of the upperside is mostly granulated, except on the head and forelimbs; the skin of the underside is smooth. The hands and feet lack webbing, and there are no protrusions on the tarsus.
The species can be identified as a member of its genus by its aposematic colouration, a bright spot near the calf, a light stripe along the upperside, no pale line along the sides, the absence of webbing, and the presence of palatine teeth. It can be told apart from other species in its genus by a combination of its medium size; a snout that is short when seen from above and projecting when seen from the side; a black upperside; a white underside with black markings; the presence of the orange spots and stripe; only the lower portion of the ring of the tympanum (external ear) being visible and the fold above the tympanum being absent; and small hands with well-developed discs on the fingers.


The advertisement call consists of single notes 0.113–0.116 s long, delivered on average 0.136 s apart. The single-note nature of the call, as opposed to pulsed vocalizations, distinguishes this species from A. berohoka, A. braccata, A. flavopicta, and A. boehmei, and the length of the notes differentiates it from A. braccata, A. hahneli, and A. picta, all of which have shorter calls. The calls are mainly delivered at a frequency of 3,445.3–3,617.6 Hz, helping tell the frog apart from A. altamazonica, A. berohoka, A. boehmei, A. braccata, and A. picta.


The species is endemic to Brazil, where it is known from Jacareacanga Municipality in Pará and Paranaíta Municipality in Mato Grosso. A. munduruku has been recorded from Mato Grosso tropical dry forests and Madeira–Tapajós moist forests within the Amazon, sheltering in rocky outcrops near water in open areas in forest at elevations of around 200 m (660 ft). They have also been observed inside forests, living on fallen trunks and rocks and in leaf litter. Frogs known to co-occur with A. munduruku include Ceratophrys cornuta, Lithodytes lineatus, Allobates tapajos, Proceratophrys korekore, and species in the genus Adenomera. A male carrying nine tadpoles on its back has been observed in November, during the wet season.


The IUCN classifies this frog as least concern of exctinction, but it does face some threat. This is principally habitat loss associated with deforestation in favor of agriculture and livestock cultivation. The construction of hydroelectric dams may also pose some threat to this species.


"The American Dream Is Killing Me" is a song by American rock band Green Day from their fourteenth studio album, Saviors (2024). The opening track of the album, the song was originally written by the band during the sessions of their previous studio album as a protest song against the first presidency of Donald Trump. The song was later recorded with encouragement from producer Rob Cavallo, with lyrics tweaked to reflect the "anxiety of being an American".
After three weeks of the band posting zombie-themed teasers to their social media, the song was premiered on October 19, 2023, during a secret show in Las Vegas, and released for digital download and streaming on October 24 as the album's first single. The accompanying music video for the song, directed by Brendan Walter and Ryan Baxley, features the band playing to a crowd of zombies amidst a zombie apocalypse. "The American Dream Is Killing Me" received generally positive reviews from music critics, who praised its catchiness but criticized its "vague" lyrics. The song topped the US Rock Airplay and Canada Rock charts, and was nominated for Best Rock Performance at the 67th Annual Grammy Awards.


"The American Dream Is Killing Me" was initially written during the sessions for Father of All Motherfuckers (2020), Green Day's thirteenth studio album. However, the song was ultimately shelved, as the band deemed the song as "low-hanging fruit" for the "terrible politics and terrible division" within the United States, and wished to avoid political themes on the album altogether.
Saviors, the band's fourteenth studio album, was later conceived when Billie Joe Armstrong reconnected with producer Rob Cavallo, who had previously worked with the band on their albums Dookie (1994) and American Idiot (2004). Towards the end of the recording process for Saviors, the band showed Cavallo "The American Dream Is Killing Me" when he asked whether the band had any other material. Upon receiving Cavallo's approval, Armstrong did a "deep dive on the lyrics" and "tweaked a few things here and there" with the song. "The American Dream Is Killing Me" was one of the final tracks recorded for Saviors.


"The American Dream Is Killing Me" is an "anthemic" pop-punk song, which has been stylistically compared to the band's 2004 studio album American Idiot and their 2009 album 21st Century Breakdown. Brady Gerber of Vulture called the song "Clash-worthy", while Marko Djurdjić of Exclaim! stylistically compared the song to those by Thin Lizzy. "The American Dream Is Killing Me" begins with a "jig-like electric guitar riff", before the rest of the band joins in and the song takes on a "classic bouncy Green Day beat". The chorus of the song features a "big shout-along" of the song's title. The song's bridge contains a "string-infused" chamber pop interlude reminiscent of the Beatles, where Armstrong sings "People on the street / Unemployed and obsolete / Did you ever learn to read the ransom note?" before the song returns to its original style.
According to Armstrong, the lyrics of "The American Dream Is Killing Me" touch on political polarization and homelessness in the United States, the role of "the algorithm", disillusionment with the American Dream, and the "anxiety of being an American". Dirnt clarified that the song was originally written in protest to the presidency of Donald Trump; however, he added that the song is "a wider statement than Trump" and that it reflects Armstrong's upbringing. The New York Times' Jon Pareles further noted that the song's lyrics "deride" conspiracy theories, opponents to immigration, and the exploitation of real estate, while The Guardian's Phil Mongredien observed a sense of "weary resignation" in the song's lyrics. The song's lyrics have been compared to those of the band's prior protest song "American Idiot".


On October 1, 2023, the band released a 33-second video to their social media pages in reference to their 2005 single "Wake Me Up When September Ends", containing a calendar with the date October 24 circled. The band simultaneously released the teaser on a new website titled "The American Dream Is Killing Me", which allowed users to "register for a wake-up call" and receive email updates regarding Saviors. The band continued promoting the single release on their social media by posting various "eerie, zombie-filled clips" throughout the month. The song was first released on October 21 and 22 during the When We Were Young festival, on 7-inch vinyl featuring "Look Ma, No Brains!" on the B-side. On October 24, 2023, "The American Dream Is Killing Me" was made available for digital download and streaming, released as the first single off Saviors.


An accompanying music video for "The American Dream Is Killing Me", directed by Brendan Walter and Ryan Baxley, was uploaded to Green Day's YouTube channel on October 24, 2023. The music video features the zombified band playing the song to a "crowd of punk rock zombies" amidst a zombie apocalypse; towards the end, a group of zombie hunters begin to fight against the crowd. The black-and-white music video was recorded in Los Angeles. Inspired by film noir and Night of the Living Dead, it was intended to serve as both entertainment and social commentary for life in the United States.


"The American Dream Is Killing Me" received generally positive reviews from music critics, with Tom Breihan of Stereogum declaring it the "best new Green Day single in many years" upon its release. The song's composition has been praised for its energy and catchiness. A.D. Amorosi of Variety called the song a "spunky gallop", praising the song's bridge as "sweet" and "swiftly rendered". Marko Djurdjić of Exclaim! similarly highlighted the song's bridge, calling it an earworm. Ludovic Hunter-Tilney of the Financial Times called the song a "spry return to the power-trio days of American Idiot", while Helen Brown of The Independent observed that "the energy of a trio who met in their mid-teens seems undimmed now they're in their fifties". However, Brown criticized how "relentless" noises in the song "sludges out the sound too thickly", while Mark Richardson of The Wall Street Journal noted how the chorus "walks the line between catchy and irritating".
The lyrics of "The American Dream Is Killing Me" received mixed reviews, with critics praising the song's "vivid" political commentary while critiquing them as "surface-level". Emma Swann of DIY noted how the song epitomized Armstrong's "unrivaled" ability to "incorporate biting social commentary within perfect, three-minute pop (punk) songs", while Madison Walters of New Noise Magazine praised the song's "visceral" lyrics. Richardson observed how, despite the song not having "particularly insightful lyrics", it was "probably not meant to be" in lieu of being cathartic. Despite complimenting the song as an "effective opening" to the album, Chris Conaton of PopMatters called the song's lyrics "vague", suggesting that they seemed "specifically designed not to alienate" listeners. Luke Winstanley of Clash similarly deemed the song a "confident statement of intent", however noted it "lack[ed] real acidic bite". In more critical reviews, Arielle Gordon of Pitchfork lambasted the song's lyrics as "quaint and overly broad", while Lauren Murphy of The Irish Times criticized the song's reliance on "recycled tropes".


In its first week, "The American Dream Is Killing Me" garnered 1.1 million streams in the United States and sold 1,000 downloads. The song peaked at number one of Billboard's Rock Airplay chart on November 18, 2023, becoming the seventh song by the band to do so. The song also debuted and peaked at number 22 on the Hot Rock & Alternative Songs chart. Outside the United States, the song topped the Canada Rock chart and peaked at number 11 on the Japan Hot Overseas chart. The song also appeared on New Zealand's Hot Singles chart (29), the United Kingdom's Rock & Metal Singles chart (37), Germany's Download chart for singles (45), and the Finland's Radiosoittolista chart (81).


Green Day debuted "The American Dream Is Killing Me" during a surprise show at the Fremont Country Club in Las Vegas on October 19, 2023. The band then played the song during their appearance at the When We Were Young festival on October 21 and 22. On October 26, 2023, the band played "The American Dream Is Killing Me" as part of their Amazon Music Live setlist. The band played the song during their halftime show performance in the 110th Grey Cup on November 19, 2023. The band included "The American Dream Is Killing Me" in the setlist of their January 18, 2024 show at Irving Plaza as part of the Small Stages Series by Sirius XM. On April 3, 2024, the band played the song at the Fillmore during a charity concert for the United Nations Right Here, Right Now Global Climate Alliance. "The American Dream Is Killing Me" is included in the setlist of The Saviors Tour, the ongoing concert tour in support of Saviors that began on May 30, 2024.


American Samoa competed at the 2024 Summer Olympics in Paris, France, which were held from July 26 to August 11, 2024. The territory's participation in Paris marked its tenth appearance at the Summer Olympics since its debut in 1988. The athlete delegation of the country was composed of two people: Filomenaleonisa Iakopo in athletics and Micah Masei in swimming. Iakopo and Masei were the flagbearers for the territory at the opening ceremony while Iakopo solely held it at the closing ceremony.
Iakopo and Masei qualified after receiving universality slots in their events, which allows underrepresented nations to compete and for a National Olympic Committee (NOC) to send athletes despite not meeting the other qualification criteria. Masei competed in the men's 100 meter breaststroke but swam in a time not fast enough to progress into further rounds. Iakopo then competed in the women's 100 meters and also did not progress further after not finishing with a fast enough time, though she set a national record in the event. Thus, American Samoa has yet to win an Olympic medal.

American Samoa at the 2024 Summer Olympics


The games were held from July 26 to August 11, 2024, in the city of Paris, France. This edition marked the territory's tenth appearance at the Summer Olympics since its debut at the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul, South Korea. The nation had never won a medal at the Olympics, with its best performance coming from boxer Maselino Masoe placing joint fifth in the men's light middleweight event at the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona, Spain.


The American Samoan delegation was composed of nine people. They landed in Paris on July 14, 2024. The officials present at the games were chef de mission Joseph Ioane, American Samoa National Olympic Committee (ASNOC) president Ed Imo, and ASNOC general secretary Ethan Lake. Two athletes qualified for the games, swimmer Micah Masei, who was coached by Cassandra Bess Lund, and Filomenaleonisa Iakopo, who was coached by Priscilla Iakopo, who is also her mother. Imo's and Lake's wives were also part of the delegation.


The American Samoan delegation came in 162nd out of the 205 National Olympic Committees in the 2024 Summer Olympics Parade of Nations within the opening ceremony. Iakopo and Masei held the flag for the delegation. They were also accompanied by Ioane, Lund, and Priscilla Iakopo. At the closing ceremony, Iakopo held the flag.


American Samoa was eligible for a universality slot to send an athletics competitor to the games, which allows underrepresented nations to compete and for a National Olympic Committee (NOC) to send athletes despite not meeting the standard qualification criteria. The American Samoa Track & Field Association (ASTFA) selected sprinter Filomenaleonisa Iakopo, after she competed in numerous qualifying competitions and achieved times needed for selection by the ASTFA. Iakopo is originally from the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI) though represented American Samoa as the CNMI does not have a recognized NOC. She was eligible to represent American Samoa as her father was born in the territory. She stated mixed feelings about her participation, but expressed it as an opportunity to represent Pacific Islanders on a "global stage".
The lead-up to the games saw Iakopo compete at the 2022 Oceania Athletics Championships, her debut international competition, followed by the 2022 Pacific Mini Games, 2023 Oceania Athletics Cup, 2023 Pacific Games, 2024 World Athletics Indoor Championships, and 2024 Oceania Athletics Championships. She also held the national records in the 100 and 200 meters. As the territory does not have a proper track, she stated that she trained on various surfaces such as sand, grass, and concrete. Before the games, Iakopo aimed to beat her personal best of 12.83 seconds and advance by placing in the top three of her preliminary heat.


The athletics events were held at the Stade de France. Making her Olympic debut, Iakopo competed in the preliminaries of the women's 100 meters on 2 August 2024 at 10:43 a.m., where she raced in the second heat and ran a time of 12.78 seconds for a new national record and personal best. She placed eighth out of the nine people in her heat and did not advance further. After competing, she became the first Chamorro person from the CMNI to compete at the Olympic Games. She stated that she was satisfied with her result, citing her personal best and national record-breaking time. The eventual winner of the event was Julien Alfred of Saint Lucia, who won in a time of 10.72 and earned Saint Lucia's first Olympic medal.
Track and road events


American Samoa was eligible for a universality slot to send a swimmer to the games. The nation selected national record holder Micah Masei. Masei grew up in Oregon though represented American Samoa through his grandfather, Mataiaau Masei, who was born in the territory but moved to the mainland United States for work. Micah Masei also competed at the last Summer Games held in Tokyo, Japan, where he competed in the men's 100 meter breaststroke and placed first in his heat, though his time was not fast enough to progress to further rounds. After the games in Tokyo, he took a break from swimming for 18 months to pursue a master's degree in finance at the University of Hawai'i. He resumed the sport on February 2023, training in the ocean.
The lead-up to the games saw Masei compete at the 2023 World Aquatics Championships; 2023 Pacific Games, where he earned silver and bronze in the 100 and 50 meter breaststroke respectively; 2024 World Aquatics Championships; and 2024 Oceania Swimming Championships, where he earned silver in the 50 meter breaststroke and won gold in the 100 meter breaststroke with a new national record of 1:04.64. Prior to the games, he trained in a camp in Divonne-les-Bains for ten days, where he praised the camp's location and the athletes who trained there alongside him.


The swimming events were held at the Paris La Défense Arena. Masei competed in the heats of the men's 100 meter breaststroke on 27 July 2024 at 11:30 a.m. in the first heat. He finished with a time of 1:05.95 and placed third in his heat. He did not progress further and placed 34th out of the 36 competitors that competed. After he competed, he stated that his reason for competing is because of the support he receives from his family; his sister was in the stands of the arena during his competition. The eventual winner of the event was Nicolò Martinenghi of Italy who won in a time of 59.03 seconds.


"American Teenager" is a song by the American singer-songwriter and record producer Ethel Cain from her debut studio album, Preacher's Daughter (2022). It was released through her record label, Daughters of Cain, on April 21, 2022, as the third and final single from the album. Cain produced the song and wrote it with Steven Mark Colyer.
Inspired by photographs of her mother's time as a high school cheerleader, she wrote the song to criticize the unrealistic expectations of being a teenager in the United States. She was initially concerned that making pop music would undermine her non-pop songs, but later decided to not let this affect her. It is a heartland rock and pop song driven by synthesizers, guitar, and drums. A song about intergenerational trauma, its lyricism offers cultural commentary criticizing gun culture in the United States, unraveling the concept of the "American Dream", and expresses anti-war themes. Numerous reviewers compared the track's sound to other musicians, especially Taylor Swift and Bruce Springsteen; Cain has cited the latter as a longtime inspiration.
Upon its release, "American Teenager" was positively received by music critics, several of whom deemed it a standout from Preacher's Daughter. Critics enjoyed the emotional contrast between the upbeat production and the melancholic lyrics, the song's lyrical complexity, emotional depth and imagery, the song's blend of genres, and Cain's ability to make an accessible track while maintaining a distinct sound. Several publications deemed it one of the best songs of 2022, and it also made select mid-decade lists. It also appeared in Rolling Stone's 2023 list of the most inspirational LGBTQ songs of all time and Billboard's 2024 list of the best LGBTQ anthems of all time. Former President of the United States Barack Obama named it one of his favorite songs of 2022, Swift included it in the pre-show playlist for the Eras Tour, and the American singer-songwriter Gracie Abrams recorded a cover version of the song in February 2024.
Cain directed and edited the music video for "American Teenager", which was filmed by Silken Weinberg in Cain's hometown of Perry, Florida. She wore her mother's cheerleading uniform to the city's high school football field to take after her. The video pays homage to the emo band American Football and contains footage of the September 11 attacks. Cain performed "American Teenager" live at several festivals and included it in the setlists of the Freezer Bride Tour in 2022, and the Blood Stained Blonde Tour in 2023.


After leaving her family's home in Florida when she was age 18, Ethel Cain began her gender transition process and began working on her debut album, Preacher's Daughter (2022). She had been working on the album's story throughout the majority of her life; its narrative revolves around an American girl that runs away from her home only to meet a violent end with a cannibal. She announced the album alongside the release of its lead single, "Gibson Girl", on March 17, 2022. It was followed by the second single, "Strangers", on April 7. "American Teenager" was released as the third and final single from the album on April 21, through her record label, Daughters of Cain. It was released alongside a visualizer, which depicts Cain sitting on a picnic table, drinking cans of Budweiser, and appearing tired on a sunny day. Alongside the release of the single, she also announced the Freezer Bride Tour and revealed its North American dates for July 2022.
Cain was inspired to write "American Teenager" after looking at old photographs of her mother's time as a cheerleader in high school. She wrote the song to criticize the unrealistic expectations of being a teenager in the United States. She stated that she was surrounded by "visions of NASCAR, rock'n'roll, and being the one who would change everything" when growing up. She also commented on how the people around her growing up made her believe that everything is achievable, though did not tell her that "you need your neighbor more than your country needs you". Commenting on making a song with a more mainstream sound than the rest of her discography, Cain stated she was "scared that if [she] made pop music, [she] wouldn't be taken seriously for the non-pop songs", but later felt as if she was "getting to the point where [she] [does not] care". Cain produced the song herself and wrote it with Steven Mark Colyer.


"American Teenager" is 4 minutes and 18 seconds long. It is a heartland rock and pop song with elements of country rock and folk music. It has also been described as an ambient pop, indie folk, pop rock, and arena rock track by select music publications. It is driven by synthesizers, guitar, and drums with a hook reminiscent of rock music from the 1980s. Cain's vocals, and the track itself, contain considerable amounts of reverb. Its guitar riff is a sample of the song "Don't Stop Believin'" (1981) by the American rock band Journey. "American Teenager" is the most upbeat song on Preacher's Daughter and was seen as its most commercially appealing track by Paul Bridgewater from The Line of Best Fit. Pitchfork's Olivia Horn deemed it Cain's "closest brush with pop's mainstream". Writing for Billboard, Stephen Daw felt it had a more uplifting sound compared to Cain's previous material.
"American Teenager" is about intergenerational trauma, with lyrics that offer cultural commentary criticizing gun culture in the United States, unraveling the concept of the "American Dream", as well as expressing anti-war themes. The lyric "The neighbor's brother came home in a box" challenges the idea of a person serving their country, while "Jesus, if you're there, why do I feel alone in this room with you?" questions the idea of a person loving their god. The song evokes imagery of a high school football team, nights that went wrong, and prayers to Jesus. Its isolation-influenced lyrics about crying in a set of bleachers and witnessing caskets come back from war are used in a way to promote her sense of self-determination. Cain references the American racing driver Dale Earnhardt in the lyric "I do it for my daddy and I do it for Dale", and the song ends with the line "I'm doing what I want / And damn, I'm doing it well / For me", showing that the one thing Cain believes in is herself. Bridgewater highlighted that the track, alongside the album songs "Family Tree" and "Gibson Girl", contain "lyrics that paint a Southern Gothic world filled with the scent of Marlboro Reds, and waffle-house [sic] coffee".


Numerous reviewers compared the sound of "American Teenager" to various musicians, especially Taylor Swift and Bruce Springsteen. The Guardian's Shaad D'Souza said the track "feels indebted" to Swift and Springsteen and jokingly called it "the year's best Taylor Swift song". Similarly, Michelle Hyun Kim of Rolling Stone said it is reminiscent of Springsteen, Swift, and the emo band American Football. Devon Chodzin from Paste commented on the track's "Springsteen-like curiosity around Americana, but even more biting criticism". Tom Williams noticed similarities with Swift's second studio album, Fearless (2008), in a review for Beats Per Minute. Similarly, Evan Rytlewski of Pitchfork observed similarities between the song and Speak Now (2010), Swift's third studio album. Steve Erickson from Slant Magazine wrote that the song's "huge drums and vocals drowned in reverb" could be played next to Swift's songs on Top 40 radio, while Reanna Cruz of NPR Music felt the song's guitar tones were inspired by Swift and the musician Tom Petty. Paper's Jacqueline Codiga highlighted similarities between "American Teenager" and Swift's 2008 song "Love Story", while Rayne Fisher-Quann of i-D commented on the song's "Springsteen-inflected heartland rock". Writing for Business Insider, Callie Ahlgrim felt that the song "scratches a similar itch" that Lana Del Rey's song "Born to Die" (2012) did, "but swaps [Rey's] heavy-handed nihilism for a snapshot of youth that's far more complex and authentic". A writer for Billboard felt the "ethereal regions of [Cain's] voice" were reminiscent of the Irish rock band the Cranberries. In an interview with Paper, Cain cited Springsteen as a longtime inspiration.


Upon its release, "American Teenager" received positive reviews from music publications. Several critics considered it a standout track from Preacher's Daughter. Some reviewers highlighted the emotional contrast between the upbeat production and the melancholic lyrics. Rytlewski commended the song's ability to effectively establish the album's recurring themes. Some critics applauded the song's lyrical complexity, emotional depth, and imagery. DIY's Ben Tipple considered it "perfect epic pop", while Bridgewater felt it was one of the album's "tent-pole tracks". Critics enjoyed the song's blend of genres and Cain's ability to make an accessible track while maintaining a distinct sound.


Several publications deemed "American Teenager" one of the best songs of 2022. It appeared in the top 25 spots in lists from Business Insider, The Line of Best Fit, the Los Angeles Times, Vulture, The Guardian, Slant Magazine, Pitchfork, Paste, The New York Times, DIY, Billboard, and NPR Music. It also received further placements in the top 100 from The Fader, Consequence, Vice, and Rolling Stone, and appeared in unranked lists from Slate, Nylon, Uproxx, and British GQ. It was included in Rolling Stone's 2023 list of the most inspirational LGBTQ songs of all time; Ilana Kaplan called it Preacher's Daughter's breakout song. Similarly, Billboard named it as one of the best LGBTQ anthems of all time in 2024, describing it as "earnest yet jaded, familiar yet fresh".
Pitchfork and Paste both featured the song in their mid-decade lists of the best songs of the 2020s. The former ranked it at number 29; Horn called it a "fist-pumping anthem of solidarity for all the young people that the American dream leaves behind". The latter named it the 64th best track, with Clare Martin lauding Cain's pop abilities "as she pays tribute to her Southern Baptist Florida upbringing". In 2024, American Songwriter named it the best rock song of the decade so far; Em Casalena lauded the song's folk elements, saying they made the song sound "addicting". She also commented, "It's wild how a song about intergenerational trauma can be such a delightful little slice of music". Both USA Today and Billboard included it in their 2024 lists of the best songs to play on the Fourth of July.


"American Teenager" was listed as one of former President of the United States Barack Obama's favorite songs of 2022, which prompted surprise from Cain and the media due to the song's anti-war message. The song was included on the pre-show playlist for Swift's the Eras Tour (2023–2024). The American singer-songwriter Gracie Abrams covered "American Teenager" at the Sydney concert of her Good Riddance Tour in January 2024. The following month, she recorded a cover version of the song for the Australian radio station Triple J. Following its release, Abrams showed admiration for Cain; she described the song as "amazing" and stated that she enjoys Cain's songwriting and listens to her music often.


Cain directed and edited the music video for "American Teenager", which was filmed by Silken Weinberg in Cain's hometown of Perry, Florida. Cain wore her mother's cheerleading uniform to the city's high school football field, shooting the video on the same camera used for the music video of her song "God's Country" (2021). She stated that she felt it correct to follow in her mother's "footsteps" for the music video after looking at old pictures of her mother. The video pays homage to American Football and contains footage of the September 11 attacks. It also includes a longer intro to the song.
Cain performed "American Teenager" live at several festivals, including the Pitchfork Music Festival, Coachella, and Primavera Sound. She also included it in the set list of her first two concerts tours, the Freezer Bride Tour in 2022, and the Blood Stained Blonde Tour in 2023.


The analog revival is a period in synthesizer history when analog synthesizers returned to commercial production and popular usage.
The revival has its roots in the late 20th century but began in earnest during the early 21st century, prompted by the release of several analog synthesizers by companies such as Korg and Moog. This followed a spell of companies producing digital synthesizers after the release of Yamaha's DX7, which was less expensive than analog synthesizers and led to many analog manufacturers going out of business in the 1980s. The emergence of electronic dance music in the late 1980s boosted the popularity of analog synthesizers on the second-hand market and created a demand for the resumed production that major manufacturers took until the early 21st century to capitalize on.


Analog synthesizers have been produced since the 1960s, when American engineer Robert Moog created his Moog synthesizer. Synthesizers became widely popular with the release of the smaller and more affordable Minimoog in 1970, causing artists such as the Beatles, Rush, Lipps Inc. and Michael Jackson to begin using them. In 1983, Yamaha released the DX7 digital synthesizer, which was cheaper than its analog counterparts. Studios and producers increasingly used digital synthesizers over analog synthesizers into the late 1980s and 1990s, causing many analog synthesizer companies, including Moog, ARP and Sequential Circuits, to go out of business.


Despite the boom in digital synthesizers and their effect on manufacturers, analog synthesizers maintained some relevance throughout the late 20th century. Second-hand synthesizers enjoyed a small amount of use in the during this period; during the early 2000s this was still the case, despite the increasing availability of new analog synthesizers.
The mainstream emergence of electronic dance music in the summer of 1988 contributed to an "evolution of analog synth aesthetics". The movement heavily relied on analog synthesizers and drum machines created by the Roland Corporation several years prior. Roland's TR-808 and TR-909 drum machines and TB-303 bass synth were commercial failures at release due to their lack of realism, but were crucial to this new scene due to their ease of access. Units of these machines were available for resale at low prices on both sides of the Atlantic, making them an attractive entry point for amateur musicians. These instruments saw use in house, techno, hip-hop and other genres, creating a wider interest in analog synthesizers. However, mainstream music was still using digital synthesizers and samplers during this period. Analog synthesizer manufacturers were unable to capitalize on demand since most were out of business; those that remained had embraced digital synthesis and did not want to return to analog.
In the 1990s, some companies tried to appeal to the growing demand by releasing virtual analog synthesizers. Roland released their JD-800 in 1990: while digital, it marked a return to analog-like controls, oscillators and filters. In 1993, American audio engineer and synth manufacturer Tom Oberheim released the Marion Systems MSR2, a rack-mount synthesizer with digitally controlled analog oscillators. 1994 marked analog releases by Doepfer and Novation: the latter's Bass Station was one of many TB-303 inspired synthesizers released in this period. Others entered the market towards the end of the century, with virtual analog offerings from Waldorf, Quasimidi and other smaller manufacturers appearing in lieu of major companies.


The revival began in earnest during the early 21st century; its beginning is attributed to multiple events, including the release of the Minimoog Voyager in 2002 by the reformed Moog Music, the release of the Korg Monotron in 2010 and the re-release of several vintage synthesizers.
Modular synthesizers, specifically Eurorack, played a part in the revival by spurring major manufacturers to start making new analog synthesizers. Trade shows such as the NAMM Show reported large increases in the number of modular synthesizers in 2015, when there was a 20% increase in synthesizer offerings at the show. The manufacturing switch to surface-mount technology also contributed to the analog revival, as new synthesizers could be made faster for lower costs. The mass production of small analog synthesizers was another factor, as previous designs suffered due to being costly and unwieldy.
The revival began due to a number of perceived advantages that analog synthesizers have over their digital counterparts. Sound on Sound stated that one of these reasons was the imperfections present in the sound of an analog synthesizer, which can make the instrument feel less "sterile". Tom Oberheim said that "there is a warmth to analog", and compared the analog–digital divide to LPs and CDs. They also suggested that the simple layout and "one-knob-per-function" design help to make a better connection with the player. Oberheim and US synth designer Dave Smith both theorized that the demand could be due to a cohort of younger musicians discovering analog synthesizers. Steve Oppenheimer of Electronic Musician suggested that a factor was that musicians wanted digital and sample-based synthesizers over analog because they could emulate acoustic instruments better, but a new appreciation of analog by electronic musicians caused an "analog renaissance".
As well as the production of new synthesizers, the analog revival has manifested in other ways. Vintage synthesizers are now being sold for large amounts due to demand from modern producers. Digital synthesizers are also beginning to display traits associated with analog, such as more hands-on controls.


Anaptychia ciliaris, commonly known as the great ciliated lichen or eagle's claws, is a species of fruticose lichen in the family Physciaceae. It is predominantly found in Northern Europe, with its range extending to European Russia, the Caucasus, Central and Southern Europe, the Canary Islands, and parts of Asia. First mentioned in botanical literature by the Italian botanist Fabio Colonna in 1606, the species was formally described by Carl Linnaeus in 1753, who highlighted its unique physical characteristics such as its grey colour, its unusual leafy form with linear fringe-like segments, and the presence of hair-like structures (cilia). This lichen is adaptable in its choice of substrates, mostly growing on tree barks and less commonly on rocks.
Throughout history, the lichen has been used in early scientific investigations about lichen structure and development. Early botanists like Joseph Pitton de Tournefort and Johann Hedwig made observations about the lichen's structure. More recent studies have investigated its potential biological activities, including antibacterial, insecticidal, and antioxidant properties. A. ciliaris has been used in research to monitor atmospheric pollution, including detecting air pollution following the Chernobyl disaster. Beyond its scientific importance, the lichen has had various practical applications. For example, in the 17th century, it was one of several lichen ingredients in "Cyprus Powder", used as a personal grooming and cosmetic product.
Anaptychia ciliaris is readily recognizable by its fruticose (bushy) thallus that varies in colour from greyish-white to brownish-grey, to greenish when wet, and its large and distinctive cilia. The lichen can form extensive colonies made of neighbouring lichens each attached to the substrate at a single point, all with narrow lobes, known as laciniae, growing outwards. These laciniae, which are covered in fine hairs, split repeatedly into equal branches. Circular reproductive structures (apothecia) with brown discs occur on the thallus surface. The internal anatomy of A. ciliaris makes it sensitive to air pollutants, leading to observable changes in its form when exposed to these conditions. Two species of green algae in the genus Trebouxia have been shown to serve as the photobionts (photosynthetic partners) of this lichen.


According to Annie Lorrain Smith, Anaptypia ciliaris was first mentioned in the botanical literature in 1606 by the Italian botanist Fabio Colonna in his Ekphrasis, a work known for its detailed illustrations of plants using copperplate engravings.
It was formally described as a new species in 1753 by Carl Linnaeus, as Lichen ciliaris. Linnaeus described it as a somewhat erect, leafy, grey lichen with linear, fringe-like segments that are ciliate (having hair-like structures, or cilia). He said it resembled a tree moss with hairy edges and small shield-like structures (apothecia). Linnaeus cited multiple references that described the lichen similarly, emphasizing its larger size, hairy characteristics, and shielded appearance. Linnaeus noted that this lichen is found on trees in Europe. Julius von Flotow is credited with the transfer of the taxon to the genus Anaptychia in 1850. A specimen illustrated by Johann Jacob Dillenius in 1742 was selected as the lectotype by Syo Kurokawa in his 1962 monograph on the genus Anaptychia.
Anaptychia ciliaris is the type species of Anaptychia. This genus was proposed by Gustav Wilhelm Körber in 1848 as a replacement for the name Hagenia, suggested by Franz Gerhard Eschweiler in 1824, but already being used for a plant genus. Körber described genus Anaptychia as follows (translated from Latin): "Apothecia bordered by a resupinate thallus (ascending thallus is channelled)". Although he did not assign a type species himself, A. ciliaris was later designated as type by Louis Pfeiffer in 1872.
Common names that have been used for Anaptychia ciliaris include "great ciliated lichen" and "eagle's claws".


Several subspecies (subsp.), varieties (v.), and forms (f.) of the lichen have been described; Index Fungorum lists 45 of these subtaxa. This following list is representative, but not exhaustive:


f. ciliaris
This is the nominate form, in which pycnidia (asexual fruiting bodies) are rare or absent, and the margins of apothecia are distinctly lacinulate (i.e., fringed or tattered).
f. agropia (Ach.) Boist. (1903)
In this form, pycnidia are rare or absent, and the margins of apothecia are crenate (scalloped) or almost entire (i.e., smooth and not lobed or toothed).
f. verrucosa (Ach.) Boist. (1903)
In this form, pycnidia are numerous; the verrucae (small wart-like protuberances) are the same colour as the thallus or somewhat darker.
f. melanosticta (Ach.) Boberski (1886)
In this form, pycnidia are numerous; the verrucae are dark brown to blackish brown.
f. nigrescens (Bory) Zahlbr. (1931)
In this form the laciniae are less than 2 mm wide.
subsp. mamillata (Taylor) D.Hawks. & P.James (1980)
Compared to the nominate variety, subsp. mamillata has narrower lobes (about 2 mm wide), and a colouration that ranges from dark grey to brown when dry, to dark-olive green when wet, and its lacks and pruina on the thallus surface.
var. melanosticta (Ach.) Boisel (1903)
This variety is dark brown with a sparsely hairy upper surface and is mainly found on seaside rocks, especially rocks visited by birds.
In 1962, Kurokawa identified five forms of Anaptychia ciliaris. However, by 1973, he believed these distinctions were merely character variations caused by different environmental conditions, thus deeming them taxonomically insignificant. He subsequently grouped them as synonyms. This perspective is shared by Species Fungorum, which does not recognize these subtaxa as having individual taxonomic importance and categorizes them under a collective synonymy. Most of these classifications have not been assessed using contemporary molecular phylogenetics. One exception is A. ciliaris var. melanosticta from coastal regions. DNA analysis revealed it might be distinct enough to be considered its own species, as it emerged as a sister taxon to other tested A. ciliaris samples.


The growth form of Anaptychia ciliaris merges characteristics of both foliose (leafy) and fruticose (bushy) lichens. Like many fruticose species, this lichen attaches to its substrate at a single point. Its fronds, akin to lobes of foliose lichens, lie close to the substrate with distinct upper and lower structures in a dorsiventral organization. This structure comprises an upper fibrous cortex of tightly packed hyphae and an algal layer with interspersed photobionts between the cortex and the medulla's looser hyphae. Its lower cortex is made of hyphae that are aligned more or less parallel to the surface. The lichen's upper surface is greyish, and the underside can be greyish or whitish, with both sides turning green when wet.
This lichen forms loose attachments to its substrate, allowing it to develop large colonies up to 15 cm (6 in) or more across. These colonies comprise neighbouring individuals each with elongated, linear structures (laciniae) that repeatedly branch dichotomously (into roughly equal parts). The laciniae generally have an upward, somewhat ascending orientation. Their width is up to about 2 mm (1⁄16 in), and they are about 300 μm thick. They appear either flat or somewhat convex and are covered in soft, fine hairs (pubescence). The fibrous outer cortex imparts structural strength to the laciniae, helping them maintain an upright orientation. Numerous pale, lateral cilia lie along the margins of the laciniae. They are dark grey to black and up to 15 mm (3⁄5 in) long. Sometimes, these long cilia form hapters—specialized aerial attachment organs with highly adhesive hyphae. Upon contact with nearby surfaces, often another lobe of its own thallus, these hapters induce branching and create a spreading sheath, leading to entanglement.
On the undersurface of the laciniae, the thallus lacks a cortex and appears paler than its upper surface. The lower surface features irregular veining and is adorned with rhizines (root-like attachment structures) along the margins, which are the same colour as the thallus. These rhizines measure between 1 and 6 mm (1⁄16 and 1⁄4 in) in length and may be either simple or occasionally branched towards the tips. The upper cortex of the laciniae has irregular thickening, and its lower surface has flexuous contours, occasionally extending downward to the lower surface of the thallus. The photobiont layer, housing cells measuring 10–15 μm in diameter, is frequently interrupted by the upper cortex, resulting in a discontinuous pattern. The medullary layer is typically very thin and may even be evanescent in some regions.


Apothecia, the reproductive structures, are found on the thallus. These structures are usually laminal (spread over the thallus surface), and either stipitate (with a stipe) or somewhat sessile (directly on the thallus). Their diameters range from 2 to 5 millimetres (1⁄16 to 3⁄16 in). Their margins are lacinulate (tattered), with ciliate lacinules along the edges. The disc of the apothecia is brown or dark brown, initially covered in a white pruina that may fade. The receptacle's hymenium, 150–200 μm tall, turns blue when stained with iodine. Its cortex is irregularly thickened and resistant to iodine staining. The cylindrical or clavate asci measure about 120 by 30 μm and usually contain between four and eight spores. Spores are dark brown, ellipsoid with rounded tips, and somewhat constricted at the centre. They measure 17–23 by 28–43 μm, with thin, uniformly thickened walls. Initially, spores are oval, and filled with granular and mucous substances. Eventually, a central partition (septum) forms, dividing the contents and leading to a two-cell state.
No lichen products have been identified from Anaptychia ciliaris, and it does not react with any of the standard chemical spot tests used to help identify lichens.
The morphology of A. ciliaris changes when exposed to adverse concentrations of ambient levels of air pollutants. It stops producing cilia, and the lobes become shorter and develop a warty upper surface.


The green algal species Trebouxia arboricola was the first photobiont of Anaptychia ciliaris to be identified. A concurrent study corroborated this association and suggested the nonspecific nature of A. ciliaris in incorporating algae from adjacent lichens. The A. ciliaris specimen studied was sourced from tree bark near Xanthoria parietina and Pleurosticta acetabulum. The internal transcribed spacer ribosomal DNA of the photobiont closely matched the sequences from the photobionts of these neighbouring lichens, suggesting they share the same algae. Anaptychia ciliaris undergoes sexual reproduction through the production of meiotic spores. In lichens, this reproductive mode disperses individual symbionts separately, leading to new symbiotic formations. Such a process facilitates genetic diversity and potential symbiotic shifts among different species.
In 2014, a different member of Trebouxia was shown to partner with Anaptychia ciliata. Trebouxia decolorans is a common and widespread symbiotic haploid green alga known for forming symbiotic associations with various lichen-forming fungi. Microsatellite primers, designed specifically to probe the genetic structure and diversity of this photobiont, were used to elucidate the intra-thallus genetic diversity of T. decolorans. This revealed the presence of multiple, genetically distinct photobiont strains within the thalli of the fungi. Particularly in A. ciliata, the predominant source of photobiont diversity seems to be intrathalline somatic mutations, possibly due to the longer lifespan of the fungus compared to the mycobiont, allowing ample time for mutations to accumulate.


The moss-dwelling African species Anaptychia ethiopica closely resembles A. ciliata, so much so that its authors consider it a sorediate version of that species. It is only known to occur in the mountains of Ethiopia at altitudes over 3,500 m (11,500 ft).


Anaptychia ciliaris has a widespread but primarily Northern Hemisphere distribution, with its main range encompassing Europe, parts of Asia, and North Africa, while being notably absent from North America. Primarily found in Northern Europe, the distribution of A. ciliaris extends eastward to European Russia, the Caucasus, and northeastern Russia (Murmansk). It is also present in Central and Southern Europe, and the Canary Islands. In Africa, it is established across Morocco, and has been reported from Sudan. The lichen has sporadic records in Asia. In China, specimens have been collected from Xinjiang, Gansu, Shaanxi, and Hebei, at altitudes above 1,800 m (5,900 ft). Anaptychia ciliaris was among the top three most abundant lichens in Turkey's Lake Abant Nature Park 2018 biodiversity survey. In contrast, northern Germany and the UK have seen a decline in sightings. It is rare in Ireland, and nearly extinct in North East England. By 2010, Scotland recorded A. ciliaris in only four locations, with its scarcity attributed to air pollution and the declining elm tree population, impacted by Dutch elm disease. A century ago, it was more common in the UK, typically found thriving on trees in parklands and along cultivated roadsides. Widely distributed in Finland, it is abundant in populated areas, present in parks, alleys, and field edges, and also occurs on seashore cliffs.
Anaptychia ciliaris has adapted to growth on various substrates. Growing on bark, the lichen has been recorded frequently on Quercus rotundifolia, Q. pyrenaica, and Ulmus. Less commonly, it is found on Pinus sylvestris, P. nigra, Juniperus oxycedrus, Acer pseudoplatanus (sycamore) and Fagus sylvatica (beech). In Denmark, its usual hosts are Fraxinus and Tilia. Less frequently, it is found on calcareous and acidic rocks, and gravestones. A key characteristic of A. ciliaris is its preference for diffuse light.
In Poland, Anaptychia ciliaris is among six endangered species listed on the National red list. In Moscow's East European Plain area, it is an uncommon species and listed in the 2018 Red Data Book of the Moscow Region. It is mostly found in the area's birch grass-marsh forests, with its limited presence attributed to the air pollution from Moscow. Austria's Regional Red List also classifies A. ciliaris as endangered. Once common sight in Upper Austria, its decline is due to less availability of preferred substrate like mature, moss-covered, fertilised and dust-impregnated barks. Contemporary practices often result in the removal of trees before their bark matures to a consistency suitable for A. ciliaris.
Historical North American literature occasionally mentions the presence of A. ciliaris, but such references are misinterpretations. These instances refer to A. setifera, and A. ciliaris is not native to the continent.


Some lichens, including Anaptychia ciliaris, serve as excellent bioindicators due to their sensitivity to environmental changes and their ability to accumulate atmospheric pollutants, making them valuable tools for monitoring air quality and environmental health.
In Denmark and North Germany, a method was developed to gauge SO2 emissions using the health and fertility of indicator lichens like A. ciliaris. Similarly, England and Wales adopted a scale rating zones from 0 (most polluted) to 10 (least polluted), with A. ciliaris typically found in zones above 7, corresponding to SO2 levels around 40 micrograms per cubic metre. Historically common in 19th-century Netherlands, A. ciliaris experienced a significant decline throughout the 20th century. However, healthy specimens were unexpectedly found in 2010 on young ash trees in Brabant, a resurgence attributed to reduced air pollution and climate warming.
Monitoring the breakdown of chlorophyll into phaeophytin in A. ciliaris has proven effective for detecting air pollution. The species' ability to grow on different substrates enhances its utility in biomonitoring. In France, A. ciliaris was used to measure lead and cadmium emissions from a municipal solid waste incinerator. It has also been employed in Greece to assess the levels of heavy metals in polluted areas and near a lignite power plant.
In Sweden, A. ciliaris has a history of being used for monitoring atmospheric pollution. Following the Chernobyl disaster, it played a significant role in the biomonitoring of airborne radioactive fallout, with detected caesium-137 activity in Anaptychia ciliaris reaching as high as 14560 becquerels per kilogram.


In the 17th Century, "Cyprus Powder" was used as a toilette powder (a fine, often fragranced powder used for personal grooming and cosmetic purposes) to whiten, scent, and cleanse the hair. It was a blend of oakmoss, Anaptychia ciliaris, and species of Usnea, fragranced with ambergris or musk, combined with the essences of roses, jasmine, or orange blossoms.
In the Ar Kaweit region of eastern Sudan, the lichen, known locally as bakour, was mixed with other plants and burned to repel insects.